New insights into the pharmacogenomics of antidepressant response from the GENDEP and STAR*D studies: rare variant analysis and high-density imputation.

Genome-wide association studies have generally failed to identify polymorphisms associated with antidepressant response. Possible reasons include limited coverage of genetic variants that this study tried to address by exome genotyping and dense imputation. A meta-analysis of Genome-Based Therapeutic Drugs for Depression (GENDEP) and Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression (STAR*D) studies was performed at the single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), gene and pathway levels. Coverage of genetic variants was increased compared with previous studies by adding exome genotypes to previously available genome-wide data and using the Haplotype Reference Consortium panel for imputation. Standard quality control was applied. Phenotypes were symptom improvement and remission after 12 weeks of antidepressant treatment. Significant findings were investigated in NEWMEDS consortium samples and Pharmacogenomic Research Network Antidepressant Medication Pharmacogenomic Study (PGRN-AMPS) for replication. A total of 7062 950 SNPs were analyzed in GENDEP (n=738) and STAR*D (n=1409). rs116692768 (P=1.80e-08, ITGA9 (integrin α9)) and rs76191705 (P=2.59e-08, NRXN3 (neurexin 3)) were significantly associated with symptom improvement during citalopram/escitalopram treatment. At the gene level, no consistent effect was found. At the pathway level, the Gene Ontology (GO) terms GO: 0005694 (chromosome) and GO: 0044427 (chromosomal part) were associated with improvement (corrected P=0.007 and 0.045, respectively). The association between rs116692768 and symptom improvement was replicated in PGRN-AMPS (P=0.047), whereas rs76191705 was not. The two SNPs did not replicate in NEWMEDS. ITGA9 codes for a membrane receptor for neurotrophins and NRXN3 is a transmembrane neuronal adhesion receptor involved in synaptic differentiation. Despite their meaningful biological rationale for being involved in antidepressant effect, replication was partial. Further studies may help in clarifying their role.

Familiality and SNP heritability of age at onset and episodicity in major depressive disorder.

BACKGROUND: Strategies to dissect phenotypic and genetic heterogeneity of major depressive disorder (MDD) have mainly relied on subphenotypes, such as age at onset (AAO) and recurrence/episodicity. Yet, evidence on whether these subphenotypes are familial or heritable is scarce. The aims of this study are to investigate the familiality of AAO and episode frequency in MDD and to assess the proportion of their variance explained by common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP heritability). METHOD: For investigating familiality, we used 691 families with 2-5 full siblings with recurrent MDD from the DeNt study. We fitted (square root) AAO and episode count in a linear and a negative binomial mixed model, respectively, with family as random effect and adjusting for sex, age and center. The strength of familiality was assessed with intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). For estimating SNP heritabilities, we used 3468 unrelated MDD cases from the RADIANT and GSK Munich studies. After similarly adjusting for covariates, derived residuals were used with the GREML method in GCTA (genome-wide complex trait analysis) software. RESULTS: Significant familial clustering was found for both AAO (ICC = 0.28) and episodicity (ICC = 0.07). We calculated from respective ICC estimates the maximal additive heritability of AAO (0.56) and episodicity (0.15). SNP heritability of AAO was 0.17 (p = 0.04); analysis was underpowered for calculating SNP heritability of episodicity. CONCLUSIONS: AAO and episodicity aggregate in families to a moderate and small degree, respectively. AAO is under stronger additive genetic control than episodicity. Larger samples are needed to calculate the SNP heritability of episodicity. The described statistical framework could be useful in future analyses.

Copy number variants and therapeutic response to antidepressant medication in major depressive disorder.

It would be beneficial to find genetic predictors of antidepressant response to help personalise treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD). Rare copy number variants (CNVs) have been implicated in several psychiatric disorders, including MDD, but their role in antidepressant response has yet to be investigated. CNV data were available for 1565 individuals with MDD from the NEWMEDS (Novel Methods leading to New Medications in Depression and Schizophrenia) consortium with prospective data on treatment outcome with either a serotonergic or noradrenergic antidepressant. No association was seen between the presence of CNV (rare or common), the overall number of CNVs or genomic CNV 'burden' and antidepressant response. Specific CNVs were nominally associated with antidepressant response, including 15q13.3 duplications and exonic NRXN1 deletions. These were associated with poor response to antidepressants. Overall burden of CNVs is unlikely to contribute to personalising antidepressant treatment. Specific CNVs associated with antidepressant treatment require replication and further study to confirm their role in the therapeutic action of antidepressant.

Genome-wide association analysis of copy number variation in recurrent depressive disorder.

Large, rare copy number variants (CNVs) have been implicated in a variety of psychiatric disorders, but the role of CNVs in recurrent depression is unclear. We performed a genome-wide analysis of large, rare CNVs in 3106 cases of recurrent depression, 459 controls screened for lifetime-absence of psychiatric disorder and 5619 unscreened controls from phase 2 of the Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium (WTCCC2). We compared the frequency of cases with CNVs against the frequency observed in each control group, analysing CNVs over the whole genome, genic, intergenic, intronic and exonic regions. We found that deletion CNVs were associated with recurrent depression, whereas duplications were not. The effect was significant when comparing cases with WTCCC2 controls (P=7.7 × 10(-6), odds ratio (OR) =1.25 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.13-1.37)) and to screened controls (P=5.6 × 10(-4), OR=1.52 (95% CI 1.20-1.93). Further analysis showed that CNVs deleting protein coding regions were largely responsible for the association. Within an analysis of regions previously implicated in schizophrenia, we found an overall enrichment of CNVs in our cases when compared with screened controls (P=0.019). We observe an ordered increase of samples with deletion CNVs, with the lowest proportion seen in screened controls, the next highest in unscreened controls and the highest in cases. This may suggest that the absence of deletion CNVs, especially in genes, is associated with resilience to recurrent depression.

Depressive disorder moderates the effect of the FTO gene on body mass index.

There is evidence that obesity-related disorders are increased among people with depression. Variation in the FTO (fat mass and obesity associated) gene has been shown to contribute to common forms of human obesity. This study aimed to investigate the genetic influence of polymorphisms in FTO in relation to body mass index (BMI) in two independent samples of major depressive disorder (MDD) cases and controls. We analysed 88 polymorphisms in the FTO gene in a clinically ascertained sample of 2442 MDD cases and 809 controls (Radiant Study). In all, 8 of the top 10 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) showing the strongest associations with BMI were followed-up in a population-based cohort (PsyCoLaus Study) consisting of 1292 depression cases and 1690 controls. Linear regression analyses of the FTO variants and BMI yielded 10 SNPs significantly associated with increased BMI in the depressive group but not the control group in the Radiant sample. The same pattern was found in the PsyCoLaus sample. We found a significant interaction between genotype and affected status in relation to BMI for seven SNPs in Radiant (P<0.0057), with PsyCoLaus giving supportive evidence for five SNPs (P-values between 0.03 and 0.06), which increased in significance when the data were combined in a meta-analysis. This is the first study investigating FTO and BMI within the context of MDD, and the results indicate that having a history of depression moderates the effect of FTO on BMI. This finding suggests that FTO is involved in the mechanism underlying the association between mood disorders and obesity.

Genome-wide association study of increasing suicidal ideation during antidepressant treatment in the GENDEP project.

Suicidal thoughts during antidepressant treatment have been the focus of several candidate gene association studies. The aim of the present genome-wide association study was to identify additional genetic variants involved in increasing suicidal ideation during escitalopram and nortriptyline treatment. A total of 706 adult participants of European ancestry, treated for major depression with escitalopram or nortriptyline over 12 weeks in the Genome-Based Therapeutic Drugs for Depression (GENDEP) study were genotyped with Illumina Human 610-Quad Beadchips (Illumina, San Diego, CA, USA). A total of 244 subjects experienced an increase in suicidal ideation during follow-up. The genetic marker most significantly associated with increasing suicidality (8.28 × 10(-7)) was a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP; rs11143230) located 30 kb downstream of a gene encoding guanine deaminase (GDA) on chromosome 9q21.13. Two suggestive drug-specific associations within KCNIP4 (Kv channel-interacting protein 4; chromosome 4p15.31) and near ELP3 (elongation protein 3 homolog; chromosome 8p21.1) were found in subjects treated with escitalopram. Suggestive drug by gene interactions for two SNPs near structural variants on chromosome 4q12, one SNP in the apolipoprotein O (APOO) gene on chromosome Xp22.11 and one on chromosome 11q24.3 were found. The most significant association within a set of 33 candidate genes was in the neurotrophic tyrosine kinase receptor type 2 (NTRK2) gene. Finally, we also found trend for an association within genes previously associated with psychiatric phenotypes indirectly linked to suicidal behavior, that is, GRIP1, NXPH1 and ANK3. The results suggest novel pathways involved in increasing suicidal ideation during antidepressant treatment and should help to target treatment to reduce the risk of this dramatic adverse event. Limited power precludes definitive conclusions and replication in larger sample is warranted.

Depression symptom dimensions as predictors of antidepressant treatment outcome: replicable evidence for interest-activity symptoms.

BACKGROUND: Symptom dimensions have not yet been comprehensively tested as predictors of the substantial heterogeneity in outcomes of antidepressant treatment in major depressive disorder. METHOD: We tested nine symptom dimensions derived from a previously published factor analysis of depression rating scales as predictors of outcome in 811 adults with moderate to severe depression treated with flexibly dosed escitalopram or nortriptyline in Genome-based Therapeutic Drugs for Depression (GENDEP). The effects of symptom dimensions were tested in mixed-effect regression models that controlled for overall initial depression severity, age, sex and recruitment centre. Significant results were tested for replicability in 3637 adult out-patients with non-psychotic major depression treated with citalopram in level I of Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression (STAR*D). RESULTS: The interest-activity symptom dimension (reflecting low interest, reduced activity, indecisiveness and lack of enjoyment) at baseline strongly predicted poor treatment outcome in GENDEP, irrespective of overall depression severity, antidepressant type and outcome measure used. The prediction of poor treatment outcome by the interest-activity dimension was robustly replicated in STAR*D, independent of a comprehensive list of baseline covariates. CONCLUSIONS: Loss of interest, diminished activity and inability to make decisions predict poor outcome of antidepressant treatment even after adjustment for overall depression severity and other clinical covariates. The prominence of such symptoms may require additional treatment strategies and should be accounted for in future investigations of antidepressant response.

Interaction between serotonin transporter gene variants and life events predicts response to antidepressants in the GENDEP project.

There is substantial inter-individual variation in response to antidepressants, and genetic variation may, in part, explain these differences. For example, there is evidence to suggest that variation in the serotonin transporter gene (SLC6A4) predicts response to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Environmental factors such as the occurrence of stressful life events before treatment may also be important. One prior report suggests that both factors interact in predicting response to antidepressants. GENDEP, a prospective part-randomized pharmacogenomics trial, collected longitudinal data on the outcome of 811 patients with major depression undergoing treatment with either an SSRI (escitalopram) or a tricyclic antidepressant (nortriptyline). Life events experienced over 6 months preceding treatment were measured using a List of Threatening Experiences Questionnaire, and several polymorphisms in the serotonin transporter gene (SLC6A4) have been genotyped including the serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR). Stressful life events were shown to predict a significantly better response to escitalopram but had no effect on response to nortriptyline. Variation in the 5-HTTLPR and another polymorphism in the gene, STin4, significantly modified these effects. Gene-environment interactions including life events may therefore be important not only in the aetiology of depression, but also in predicting response to antidepressant medication.

Abnormal cortisol awakening response predicts worse cognitive function in patients with first-episode psychosis.

BACKGROUND: Cognitive impairment, particularly in memory and executive function, is a core feature of psychosis. Moreover, psychosis is characterized by a more prominent history of stress exposure, and by dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. In turn, stress exposure and abnormal levels of the main HPA axis hormone cortisol are associated with cognitive impairments in a variety of clinical and experimental samples; however, this association has never been examined in first-episode psychosis (FEP). METHOD: In this study, 30 FEP patients and 26 controls completed assessment of the HPA axis (cortisol awakening response and cortisol levels during the day), perceived stress, recent life events, history of childhood trauma, and cognitive function. The neuropsychological battery comprised general cognitive function, verbal and non-verbal memory, executive function, perception, visuospatial abilities, processing speed, and general knowledge. RESULTS: Patients performed significantly worse on all cognitive domains compared to controls. In patients only, a more blunted cortisol awakening response (that is, more abnormal) was associated with a more severe deficit in verbal memory and processing speed. In controls only, higher levels of perceived stress and more recent life events were associated with a worse performance in executive function and perception and visuospatial abilities. CONCLUSIONS: These data support a role for the HPA axis, as measured by cortisol awakening response, in modulating cognitive function in patients with psychosis; however, this association does not seem to be related to the increased exposure to psychosocial stressors described in these patients.

The genetics of affective disorder and suicide.

Suicidal behaviour shows evidence of familial clustering and the twin data on completed suicide suggest moderate heritability. The extent to which the genetics of suicidal behaviour overlaps with the genetics of affective disorders is unclear but there is overwhelming evidence that both bipolar and unipolar disorder are substantially influenced by genes. So far, candidate gene studies of suicidality have provoked much interest, but recently, attention has also turned to candidate gene approaches to suicidal ideation emerging during antidepressant treatment. The advent of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) has had a major impact on studies of affective disorder with some provocative new findings. The GWAS approach is also beginning to be applied in the search for genes that underlie suicidal ideation and behaviour.

Trajectories of change in depression severity during treatment with antidepressants.

BACKGROUND: Response and remission defined by cut-off values on the last observed depression severity score are commonly used as outcome criteria in clinical trials, but ignore the time course of symptomatic change and may lead to inefficient analyses. We explore alternative categorization of outcome by naturally occurring trajectories of symptom change. METHOD: Growth mixture models were applied to repeated measurements of depression severity in 807 participants with major depression treated for 12 weeks with escitalopram or nortriptyline in the part-randomized Genome-based Therapeutic Drugs for Depression study. Latent trajectory classes were validated as outcomes in drug efficacy comparison and pharmacogenetic analyses. RESULTS: The final two-piece growth mixture model categorized participants into a majority (75%) following a gradual improvement trajectory and the remainder following a trajectory with rapid initial improvement. The rapid improvement trajectory was over-represented among nortriptyline-treated participants and showed an antidepressant-specific pattern of pharmacogenetic associations. In contrast, conventional response and remission favoured escitalopram and produced chance results in pharmacogenetic analyses. Controlling for drop-out reduced drug differences on response and remission but did not affect latent trajectory results. CONCLUSIONS: Latent trajectory mixture models capture heterogeneity in the development of clinical response after the initiation of antidepressants and provide an outcome that is distinct from traditional endpoint measures. It differentiates between antidepressants with different modes of action and is robust against bias due to differential discontinuation.

Housekeeping gene expression is affected by antidepressant treatment in a mouse fibroblast cell line.

Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is an effective approach in investigating the effects of exogenous compounds on gene expression. This is often achieved by exploiting so-called 'housekeeping' genes as baseline controls to normalise expression levels, which have historically been assumed to have a relatively stable expression pattern. Recent non-in-vitro studies have questioned the validity of this, but previous in-vitro data were lacking following antidepressant treatment. We here investigated the stability of 12 housekeeping genes during treatment of the mouse L929 fibroblast cell line with escitalopram and nortriptyline. Cells were cultured in the presence of antidepressant at 1 microM or 10 microM for 30 min, 24 h or 48 h, and RNA subjected to quantitative PCR (qPCR). Stability of relative transcript expression values was assessed via gene-gene expression ratios and intra- and inter-group variation (using geNorm and NormFinder programs). The three most stable transcripts were adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthase, H+ transporting mitochondrial F1 complex, beta subunit, beta-2 microglobulin and cytochrome c-1. The least stable were Gapdh, eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4A2 and Calnexin (Canx). In conclusion, care must be taken when choosing reference transcripts for analysis in qPCR. For in-vitro pharmacological studies, it should not be assumed that 'housekeeping' genes are stable.

Extracting a needle from a haystack: reanalysis of whole genome data reveals a readily translatable finding.

There is significant unmet need for more effective treatments for bipolar disorder. The drug discovery process is becoming prohibitively expensive. Hence, biomarker clues to assist or shortcut this process are now widely sought. Using the publicly available data from the whole genome association study conducted by the Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium, we sought to identify groups of genetic markers (single nucleotide polymorphisms) in which each marker was independently associated with bipolar disorder, with a less stringent threshold than that set by the original investigators (p< or =1 x 10(-4)). We identified a group of markers occurring within the CACNA1C gene (encoding the alpha subunit of the calcium channel Cav1.2). We then ascertained that this locus had been previously associated with the disorder in both a smaller and a whole genome study, and that a number of drugs blocking this channel (including verapamil and diltiazem) had been trialled in the treatment of bipolar disorder. The dihydropyridine-based blockers such as nimodipine that bind specifically to Cav1.2 and are more penetrant to the central nervous system have shown some promising early results; however, further trials are indicated. In addition, migraine is commonly seen in affective disorder, and calcium channel antagonists are successfully used in the treatment of migraine. One such agent, flunarizine, is structurally related to other first-generation derivatives of antihistamines such as antipsychotics. This implies that flunarizine could be useful in the treatment of bipolar disorder, and, furthermore, that other currently licensed drugs should be investigated for antagonism of Cav1.2.

Functional polymorphisms in the interleukin-6 and serotonin transporter genes, and depression and fatigue induced by interferon-alpha and ribavirin treatment.

Depression and fatigue are frequent side effects of interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) treatment, and there is compelling evidence that the inflammatory response system (including interleukin-6, IL-6) and the serotonergic system is important in the pathophysiology of such symptoms. Functional polymorphisms in the promoter region of the IL-6 gene (rs1800795) and serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) have been identified as regulating these systems. The present study aimed to determine if these polymorphisms were associated with the development of depression and fatigue during IFN-alpha and ribavirin treatment. Ninety-eight Caucasian patients receiving pegylated IFN-alpha and ribavirin treatment for chronic hepatitis C virus at King's College Hospital, London, and Emory University Hospital, Atlanta, participated in this prospective cohort study. Symptoms of depression and fatigue were measured before treatment and at weeks 4, 8, 12 and 24 during treatment. The 'low IL-6' synthesizing genotype (CC) was associated with significantly fewer symptoms of depression (effect size = 0.7 at week 24; F = 9.4, d.f. = 436, P = 0.002). The 'high transcription' serotonin transporter (5-HTT) genotype (LL) was also associated with significantly fewer symptoms of depression, but with a much smaller effect (effect size = 0.2 at week 24; F = 4.5, d.f. = 436, P = 0.03). Neither polymorphisms were associated with symptoms of fatigue (IL-6: F = 1.2, d.f. = 430, P = 0.2; 5-HTT: F = 0.5, d.f. = 430, P = 0.5). The smaller effects of the 5-HTT polymorphism on depression may be explained by an interaction between the genes (F = 5.0, d.f. = 434, P = 0.02): the 'protective' effect of the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism was evident only in the presence of the 'low IL-6' genotype (F = 5.4, d.f. = 64, P = 0.02), not in the presence of the 'high IL-6' genotype (F = 2.2, d.f. = 369, P = 0.1). The association between the IL-6 polymorphism and reduced risk of depressive symptoms confirms the role of the inflammatory response system in the pathophysiology of IFN-alpha-induced depression; in contrast, the effect of the 5-HTT gene was small and perhaps dependent on the status of the inflammatory response.

A UK consensus on the administration of aripiprazole for the treatment of mania.

Aripiprazole has recently received approval for the treatment of moderate to severe manic episodes in bipolar I disorder and prevention of new manic episodes in aripiprazole-responsive patients. Aripiprazole differs from other antipsychotics in its pharmacology, and the need for prescribing guidance in the UK was recently identified. A UK multidisciplinary panel was convened in November 2007. This report describes the consensus agreed during the meeting on the optimal approach to prescribing aripiprazole: how best to approach initiation of, and switching to, treatment with aripiprazole and management strategies for side effects. A literature review of the randomised controlled clinical trials of aripiprazole in mania supports these recommendations. Aripiprazole should be initiated at 15 mg/day (range 5-20 mg/day). If necessary, adjunctive medication should be used in early treatment to manage side effects or assist in management of symptoms such as agitation. When switching to aripiprazole, the therapeutic dose of current treatment should be maintained while adding aripiprazole 15 (5-20) mg/day. Only once an effective dose of aripiprazole is reached should previous medication be reduced. Nausea, insomnia and agitation typically resolve within days. Some principles for dosing and switching are provided to assist with a successful treatment outcome with aripiprazole in mania.

Interrater reliability of the Antipsychotic Non-Neurological Side-Effects Rating Scale measured in patients treated with clozapine.

The Antipsychotic Non-Neurological Side-Effects Rating Scale (ANNSERS) was developed to provide a comprehensive measure for rating non-neurological adverse drug reactions (ADRs) to antipsychotics. Although there were already available measures that adequately rated specific non-neurological ADRs, such as sexual side effects, a need was identified for a scale that comprehensively rated the full range of non-neurological ADRs commonly seen across the spectrum of first and second generation antipsychotic drugs, including metabolic and autonomic ADRs. This article reports on work to establish the interrater reliability of an early version and a later, more comprehensive version of the ANNSERS (versions 1 and 2, v1 and v2, respectively). The measures were administered in London centres to patients treated with clozapine. Trained clinicians rated the patients simultaneously and independently. Interrater reliability on the scores was calculated using the kappa coefficient method. The results (mean kappa coefficients of 0.77 and 0.72, respectively) indicate that substantial interrater reliability was achieved for both versions. Items for which the main basis for rating was laboratory investigations rather than patient interview were largely excluded from this study, and kappas were also not calculated for items with a low frequency (less than 10%) of endorsement. Samples of patients on other antipsychotics would be required to reliably calculate kappa coefficients for these items. In conclusion, the ANNSERS represents a clinically applicable research innovation, with good interrater reliability on clinician judged items, which is now available for the comprehensive assessment of non-neurological ADRs to antipsychotics, to aid the processes of clinical audit, research and drug discovery.

Measuring depression: comparison and integration of three scales in the GENDEP study.

BACKGROUND: A number of scales are used to estimate the severity of depression. However, differences between self-report and clinician rating, multi-dimensionality and different weighting of individual symptoms in summed scores may affect the validity of measurement. In this study we examined and integrated the psychometric properties of three commonly used rating scales. METHOD: The 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD-17), the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) were administered to 660 adult patients with unipolar depression in a multi-centre pharmacogenetic study. Item response theory (IRT) and factor analysis were used to evaluate their psychometric properties and estimate true depression severity, as well as to group items and derive factor scores. RESULTS: The MADRS and the BDI provide internally consistent but mutually distinct estimates of depression severity. The HAMD-17 is not internally consistent and contains several items less suitable for out-patients. Factor analyses indicated a dominant depression factor. A model comprising three dimensions, namely 'observed mood and anxiety', 'cognitive' and 'neurovegetative', provided a more detailed description of depression severity. CONCLUSIONS: The MADRS and the BDI can be recommended as complementary measures of depression severity. The three factor scores are proposed for external validation.

The relevance of ethnic influences on pharmacogenetics to the treatment of psychosis.

Interethnic variation amongst the drug metabolising enzymes relevant to the treatment of psychosis is reviewed. The frequency of genetically determined variants at the extremes of enzyme activity is seen to vary considerably between different ethnic groups; in addition, a shift in the frequency distribution giving an overall lower population mean activity may occur. The role of dietary and other environmental influences in the generation of interethnic variation in cytochrome activity is also discussed. Clinical studies pertinent to this variation are reviewed. It is suggested that the reason for conflicting data from some clinical studies is the existence of overlapping substrate specificity, so that one cytochrome is able to substitute for another. Individuals deficient for more than one cytochrome would be likely to show much more pronounced clinical effects than those showing single cytochrome deficiency.

Association study of dopamine receptor gene polymorphisms with drug-induced hallucinations in patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease.

Some patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease experience hallucinations as a result of treatment with levodopa and dopamine agonists. There is evidence for some heterogeneity in these hallucinating patients based on duration of Parkinson's disease at onset of hallucinations. We compared the frequency of polymorphisms in the dopamine D2 and D3 receptor genes between patients with drug-induced hallucinations and non-hallucinating patients. Two polymorphisms close to DRD2 and one in DRD3 were studied. No association was found with the whole group of hallucinating patients and their controls. However, an association was found with late-onset hallucinations and the C allele of the TaqIA polymorphism, 10.5 kb 3' to DRD2. This polymorphism may be in linkage disequilibrium with a mutation in DRD2 or a nearby gene that predisposes to drug-induced hallucinations which occur later in the course of idiopathic Parkinson's disease.