Substance P in the anterior thalamic paraventricular nucleus: promotion of ethanol drinking in response to orexin from the hypothalamus.

The paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus (PVT) appears to participate in drug addiction. Recent evidence in rats shows that ethanol drinking is increased by orexin/hypocretin (OX) afferents from the hypothalamus, acting specifically in the anterior (aPVT) rather than posterior (pPVT) PVT subregion. The present study sought to identify neuropeptides transcribed within the PVT, which themselves might contribute to ethanol drinking and possibly mediate the actions of OX. We discovered that substance P (SP) in the aPVT can stimulate intermittent-access ethanol drinking, similar to OX, and that SP receptor [neurokinin 1 receptor/tachykinin receptor 1 (NK1R)] antagonists in this subregion reduce ethanol drinking. As with OX, this effect is site specific, with SP in the pPVT or dorsal third ventricle having no effect on ethanol drinking, and it is behaviorally specific, with SP in the aPVT reducing the drinking of sucrose and stimulating it in the pPVT. A close relationship between SP and OX was demonstrated by a stimulatory effect of local OX injection on SP mRNA and peptide levels, specifically in the aPVT but not pPVT, and a stimulatory effect of OX on SP expression in isolated thalamic neurons, reflecting postsynaptic actions. A functional relationship between OX and SP in the aPVT is suggested by our additional finding that ethanol drinking induced by OX is blocked by a local NK1R antagonist administered at a sub-threshold dose. These results, suggesting that SP in the aPVT mediates the stimulatory effect of OX on ethanol drinking, identify a new role for SP in the control of this behavior.

Transdermal drug delivery system: patent reviews.

Transdermal drug delivery represents one of the most rapidly advancing areas of novel drug delivery. Although the concept of transdermal drug delivery has been known since 1924, it took until 1979, as FDA approved the transdermal delivery of scopolamine, that transdermal delivery systems [TDDS] received broad attention as novel tool for controlled release. These drug delivery systems are designed for controlled release of drug through the skin into systemic circulation maintaining consistent efficacy and reducing dose of the drug and its related side effects. More than 200 patents have been granted by the United State patent alone, of which more than 35 TDD products have now been approved for sale in the US, and approximately 16 active ingredients have been approved for use globally. Statistics reveal a market of $ 12.7 billion in the year 2005 which is expected to increase by $ 21.5 billion in the year 2010 and $ 31.5 billion in the year 2015. Almost all major and minor pharmaceutical companies are developing TDDS. There is not a single review article which describes patents on different types of TDDS. Thus this review is designed for patents on the different type of TDDS which would be helpful for the researcher in the field of TDDS.

Membrane accumulation of influenza A virus hemagglutinin triggers nuclear export of the viral genome via protein kinase Calpha-mediated activation of ERK signaling.

Replication and transcription of the influenza virus genome takes place exclusively within the nucleus of the infected cells. The viral RNA genome, polymerase subunits, and nucleoprotein form ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes. Late in the infectious cycle RNPs have to be exported from the nucleus to be enwrapped into budding progeny virions at the cell membrane. This process requires viral activation of the cellular Raf/MEK/ERK (mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)) signaling cascade that is activated late in the infection cycle. Accordingly, block of the cascade results in retardation of RNP export and reduced titers of progeny virus. In the present study we have analyzed the importance of cell-membrane association of the viral hemagglutinin glycoprotein for viral MAPK activation. We show that hemagglutinin membrane accumulation and its tight association with lipid-raft domains trigger activation of the MAPK cascade via protein kinase Calpha activation and induces RNP export. This may represent an auto-regulative mechanism that coordinates timing of RNP export to a point when all viral components are ready for virus budding.