Calcium-Driven In Silico Inactivation of a Human Olfactory Receptor.

Conformational changes as well as molecular determinants related to the activation and inactivation of olfactory receptors are still poorly understood due to the intrinsic difficulties in the structural determination of this GPCR family. Here, we perform, for the first time, the in silico inactivation of human olfactory receptor OR51E2, highlighting the possible role of calcium in this receptor state transition. Using molecular dynamics simulations, we show that a divalent ion in the ion binding site, coordinated by two acidic residues at positions 2.50 and 3.39 conserved across most ORs, stabilizes the receptor in its inactive state. In contrast, protonation of the same two acidic residues is not sufficient to drive inactivation within the microsecond timescale of our simulations. Our findings suggest a novel molecular mechanism for OR inactivation, potentially guiding experimental validation and offering insights into the possible broader role of divalent ions in GPCR signaling.

Low Molecular Weight Inhibitors Targeting the RNA-Binding Protein HuR.

The RNA-binding protein human antigen R (HuR) regulates stability, translation, and nucleus-to-cytoplasm shuttling of its target mRNAs. This protein has been progressively recognized as a relevant therapeutic target for several pathologies, like cancer, neurodegeneration, as well as inflammation. Inhibitors of mRNA binding to HuR might thus be beneficial against a variety of diseases. Here, we present the rational identification of structurally novel HuR inhibitors. In particular, by combining chemoinformatic approaches, high-throughput virtual screening, and RNA-protein pulldown assays, we demonstrate that the 4-(2-(2,4,6-trioxotetrahydropyrimidin-5(2H)-ylidene)hydrazineyl)benzoate ligand exhibits a dose-dependent HuR inhibition effect in binding experiments. Importantly, the chemical scaffold is new with respect to the currently known HuR inhibitors, opening up a new avenue for the design of pharmaceutical agents targeting this important protein.

Fluoride permeation mechanism of the Fluc channel in liposomes revealed by solid-state NMR.

Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR) methods can probe the motions of membrane proteins in liposomes at the atomic level and propel the understanding of biomolecular processes for which static structures cannot provide a satisfactory description. In this work, we report our study on the fluoride channel Fluc-Ec1 in phospholipid bilayers based on ssNMR and molecular dynamics simulations. Previously unidentified fluoride binding sites in the aqueous vestibules were experimentally verified by 19F-detected ssNMR. One of the two fluoride binding sites in the polar track was identified as a water molecule by 1H-detected ssNMR. Meanwhile, a dynamic hotspot at loop 1 was observed by comparing the spectra of wild-type Fluc-Ec1 in variant buffer conditions or with its mutants. Therefore, we propose that fluoride conduction in the Fluc channel occurs via a "water-mediated knock-on" permeation mechanism and that loop 1 is a key molecular determinant for channel gating.

Machine Learning-Based Modeling of Olfactory Receptors in Their Inactive State: Human OR51E2 as a Case Study.

Atomistic-level investigation of olfactory receptors (ORs) is a challenging task due to the experimental/computational difficulties in the structural determination/prediction for members of this family of G-protein coupled receptors. Here, we have developed a protocol that performs a series of molecular dynamics simulations from a set of structures predicted de novo by recent machine learning algorithms and apply it to a well-studied receptor, the human OR51E2. Our study demonstrates the need for simulations to refine and validate such models. Furthermore, we demonstrate the need for the sodium ion at a binding site near D2.50 and E3.39 to stabilize the inactive state of the receptor. Considering the conservation of these two acidic residues across human ORs, we surmise this requirement also applies to the other ∼400 members of this family. Given the almost concurrent publication of a CryoEM structure of the same receptor in the active state, we propose this protocol as an in silico complement to the growing field of ORs structure determination.

Molecular determinants of acrylamide neurotoxicity through covalent docking.

Acrylamide (ACR) is formed during food processing by Maillard reaction between sugars and proteins at high temperatures. It is also used in many industries, from water waste treatment to manufacture of paper, fabrics, dyes and cosmetics. Unfortunately, cumulative exposure to acrylamide, either from diet or at the workplace, may result in neurotoxicity. Such adverse effects arise from covalent adducts formed between acrylamide and cysteine residues of several neuronal proteins via a Michael addition reaction. The molecular determinants of acrylamide reactivity and its impact on protein function are not completely understood. Here we have compiled a list of acrylamide protein targets reported so far in the literature in connection with neurotoxicity and performed a systematic covalent docking study. Our results indicate that acrylamide binding to cysteine is favored in the presence of nearby positively charged amino acids, such as lysines and arginines. For proteins with more than one reactive Cys, docking scores were able to discriminate between the primary ACR modification site and secondary sites modified only at high ACR concentrations. Therefore, docking scores emerge as a potential filter to predict Cys reactivity against acrylamide. Inspection of the ACR-protein complex structures provides insights into the putative functional consequences of ACR modification, especially for non-enzyme proteins. Based on our study, covalent docking is a promising computational tool to predict other potential protein targets mediating acrylamide neurotoxicity.

Neprilysin-dependent neuropeptide Y cleavage in the liver promotes fibrosis by blocking NPY-receptor 1.

Development of liver fibrosis is paralleled by contraction of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), the main profibrotic hepatic cells. Yet, little is known about the interplay of neprilysin (NEP) and its substrate neuropeptide Y (NPY), a potent enhancer of contraction, in liver fibrosis. We demonstrate that HSCs are the source of NEP. Importantly, NPY originates majorly from the splanchnic region and is cleaved by NEP in order to terminate contraction. Interestingly, NEP deficiency (Nep-/-) showed less fibrosis but portal hypertension upon liver injury in two different fibrosis models in mice. We demonstrate the incremental benefit of Nep-/- in addition to AT1R blocker (ARB) or ACE inhibitors for fibrosis and portal hypertension. Finally, oral administration of Entresto, a combination of ARB and NEP inhibitor, decreased hepatic fibrosis and portal pressure in mice. These results provide a mechanistic rationale for translation of NEP-AT1R-blockade in human liver fibrosis and portal hypertension.

Fluoride Transport and Inhibition Across CLC Transporters.

The Chloride Channel (CLC) family includes proton-coupled chloride and fluoride transporters. Despite their similar protein architecture, the former exchange two chloride ions for each proton and are inhibited by fluoride, whereas the latter efficiently transport one fluoride in exchange for one proton. The combination of structural, mutagenesis, and functional experiments with molecular simulations has pinpointed several amino acid changes in the permeation pathway that capitalize on the different chemical properties of chloride and fluoride to fine-tune protein function. Here we summarize recent findings on fluoride inhibition and transport in the two prototypical members of the CLC family, the chloride/proton transporter from Escherichia coli (CLC-ec1) and the fluoride/proton transporter from Enterococcus casseliflavus (CLCF-eca).

OLHA (Nα-oleoylhistamine) modulates activity of mouse brain histaminergic neurons.

Histaminergic (HA) neurons are located in the tuberomamillary nucleus (TMN) of the posterior hypothalamus, from where they project throughout the whole brain to control wakefulness. We examined the effects of Nα-oleoylhistamine (OLHA), a non-enzymatic condensation product of oleic acid (OLA) and histamine, on activity of mouse HA neurons in brain slices. OLHA bidirectionally modulated the firing of HA neurons. At 10 nM OLHA inhibited or had no action, whereas at 1 µM it evoked excitatory and inhibitory responses. Inhibition was not seen in presence of the histamine receptor H3 (H3R) antagonist clobenpropit and in calcium-free medium. Pre-incubation with a histamine-reuptake blocker prevented the decrease in firing by OLHA. OLHA-evoked increase in firing (EC50 ∼44 nM) was insensitive to blockers of cannabinoid 1 and 2 receptors and of the capsaicin receptor, but was significantly impaired by the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPAR-alpha) antagonist MK886, which suppressed also the rise in intracellular calcium level caused by OLHA. The OLHA-evoked excitation was mimicked by synthetic PPAR-alpha agonists (gemfibrozil and GW7647) and was abolished by the PKA inhibitor H-89. The H3R affinity (Ki) for histamine, measured in HEK293 cells with stable expression of human H3R, was higher than for OLHA (Ki: 42 vs 310 nM, respectively). Expression of PPAR-alpha was not different between TMN regions of males and females, responses to OLHA did not differ. Molecular modelling of PPAR-alpha bound to either OLHA or OEA showed similar binding energies. These findings shed light on a novel biotransformation product of histamine which may play a role in health and disease.

Structure-function relationships of the disease-linked A218T oxytocin receptor variant.

Various single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene have been associated with behavioral traits, autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and other diseases. The non-synonymous SNP rs4686302 results in the OXTR variant A218T and has been linked to core characteristics of ASD, trait empathy and preterm birth. However, the molecular and intracellular mechanisms underlying those associations are still elusive. Here, we uncovered the molecular and intracellular consequences of this mutation that may affect the psychological or behavioral outcome of oxytocin (OXT)-treatment regimens in clinical studies, and provide a mechanistic explanation for an altered receptor function. We created two monoclonal HEK293 cell lines, stably expressing either the wild-type or A218T OXTR. We detected an increased OXTR protein stability, accompanied by a shift in Ca2+ dynamics and reduced MAPK pathway activation in the A218T cells. Combined whole-genome and RNA sequencing analyses in OXT-treated cells revealed 7823 differentially regulated genes in A218T compared to wild-type cells, including 429 genes being associated with ASD. Furthermore, computational modeling provided a molecular basis for the observed change in OXTR stability suggesting that the OXTR mutation affects downstream events by altering receptor activation and signaling, in agreement with our in vitro results. In summary, our study provides the cellular mechanism that links the OXTR rs4686302 SNP with genetic dysregulations associated with aspects of ASD.

Photopharmacology of Ion Channels through the Light of the Computational Microscope.

The optical control and investigation of neuronal activity can be achieved and carried out with photoswitchable ligands. Such compounds are designed in a modular fashion, combining a known ligand of the target protein and a photochromic group, as well as an additional electrophilic group for tethered ligands. Such a design strategy can be optimized by including structural data. In addition to experimental structures, computational methods (such as homology modeling, molecular docking, molecular dynamics and enhanced sampling techniques) can provide structural insights to guide photoswitch design and to understand the observed light-regulated effects. This review discusses the application of such structure-based computational methods to photoswitchable ligands targeting voltage- and ligand-gated ion channels. Structural mapping may help identify residues near the ligand binding pocket amenable for mutagenesis and covalent attachment. Modeling of the target protein in a complex with the photoswitchable ligand can shed light on the different activities of the two photoswitch isomers and the effect of site-directed mutations on photoswitch binding, as well as ion channel subtype selectivity. The examples presented here show how the integration of computational modeling with experimental data can greatly facilitate photoswitchable ligand design and optimization. Recent advances in structural biology, both experimental and computational, are expected to further strengthen this rational photopharmacology approach.

Bitter Taste and Olfactory Receptors: Beyond Chemical Sensing in the Tongue and the Nose.

The Up-and-Coming-Scientist section of the current issue of the Journal of Membrane Biology features the invited essay by Dr. Mercedes Alfonso-Prieto, Assistant Professor at the Forschungszentrum Jülich (FZJ), Germany, and the Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Vogt Institute for Brain Research. Dr. Alfonso-Prieto completed her doctoral degree in chemistry at the Barcelona Science Park, Spain, in 2009, pursued post-doctoral research in computational molecular sciences at Temple University, USA, and then, as a Marie Curie post-doctoral fellow at the University of Barcelona, worked on computations of enzyme reactions and modeling of photoswitchable ligands targeting neuronal receptors. In 2016, she joined the Institute for Advanced Science and the Institute for Computational Biomedicine at the FZJ, where she pursues research on modeling and simulation of chemical senses. The invited essay by Dr. Alfonso-Prieto discusses state-of-the-art modeling of molecular receptors involved in chemical sensing - the senses of taste and smell. These receptors, and computational methods to study them, are the focus of Dr. Alfonso-Prieto's research. Recently, Dr. Alfonso-Prieto and colleagues have presented a new methodology to predict ligand binding poses for GPCRs, and extensive computations that deciphered the ligand selectivity determinants of bitter taste receptors. These developments inform our current understanding of how taste occurs at the molecular level.

Mechanisms Underlying Proton Release in CLC-type F-/H+ Antiporters.

The CLC family of anion channels and transporters includes Cl-/H+ exchangers (blocked by F-) and F-/H+ exchangers (or CLCFs). CLCFs contain a glutamate (E318) in the central anion-binding site that is absent in CLC Cl-/H+ exchangers. The X-ray structure of the protein from Enterococcus casseliflavus (CLCF-eca) shows that E318 tightly binds to F- when the gating glutamate (E118; highly conserved in the CLC family) faces the extracellular medium. Here, we use classical and DFT-based QM/MM metadynamics simulations to investigate proton transfer and release by CLCF-eca. After up to down movement of protonated E118, both glutamates combine with F- to form a triad, from which protons and F- anions are released as HF. Our results illustrate how glutamate insertion into the central anion-binding site of CLCF-eca permits the release of H+ to the cytosol as HF, thus enabling a net 1:1 F-/H+ stoichiometry.

Robust principal component analysis-based prediction of protein-protein interaction hot spots.

Proteins often exert their function by binding to other cellular partners. The hot spots are key residues for protein-protein binding. Their identification may shed light on the impact of disease associated mutations on protein complexes and help design protein-protein interaction inhibitors for therapy. Unfortunately, current machine learning methods to predict hot spots, suffer from limitations caused by gross errors in the data matrices. Here, we present a novel data pre-processing pipeline that overcomes this problem by recovering a low rank matrix with reduced noise using Robust Principal Component Analysis. Application to existing databases shows the predictive power of the method.

Subunit-Specific Photocontrol of Glycine Receptors by Azobenzene-Nitrazepam Photoswitcher.

Photopharmacology is a unique approach that through a combination of photochemistry methods and advanced life science techniques allows the study and control of specific biological processes, ranging from intracellular pathways to brain circuits. Recently, a first photochromic channel blocker of anion-selective GABAA receptors, the azobenzene-nitrazepam-based photochromic compound (Azo-NZ1), has been described. In the present study, using patch-clamp technique in heterologous system and in mice brain slices, site-directed mutagenesis and molecular modeling we provide evidence of the interaction of Azo-NZ1 with glycine receptors (GlyRs) and determine the molecular basis of this interaction. Glycinergic synaptic neurotransmission determines an important inhibitory drive in the vertebrate nervous system and plays a crucial role in the control of neuronal circuits in the spinal cord and brain stem. GlyRs are involved in locomotion, pain sensation, breathing, and auditory function, as well as in the development of such disorders as hyperekplexia, epilepsy, and autism. Here, we demonstrate that Azo-NZ1 blocks in a UV-dependent manner the activity of α2 GlyRs (GlyR2), while being barely active on α1 GlyRs (GlyR1). The site of Azo-NZ1 action is in the chloride-selective pore of GlyR at the 2' position of transmembrane helix 2 and amino acids forming this site determine the difference in Azo-NZ1 blocking activity between GlyR2 and GlyR1. This subunit-specific modulation is also shown on motoneurons of brainstem slices from neonatal mice that switch during development from expressing "fetal" GlyR2 to "adult" GlyR1 receptors.

Hybrid MM/CG Webserver: Automatic Set Up of Molecular Mechanics/Coarse-Grained Simulations for Human G Protein-Coupled Receptor/Ligand Complexes.

Hybrid Molecular Mechanics/Coarse-Grained (MM/CG) simulations help predict ligand poses in human G protein-coupled receptors (hGPCRs), the most important protein superfamily for pharmacological applications. This approach allows the description of the ligand, the binding cavity, and the surrounding water molecules at atomistic resolution, while coarse-graining the rest of the receptor. Here, we present the Hybrid MM/CG Webserver (mmcg.grs.kfa-juelich.de) that automatizes and speeds up the MM/CG simulation setup of hGPCR/ligand complexes. Initial structures for such complexes can be easily and efficiently generated with other webservers. The Hybrid MM/CG server also allows for equilibration of the systems, either fully automatically or interactively. The results are visualized online (using both interactive 3D visualizations and analysis plots), helping the user identify possible issues and modify the setup parameters accordingly. Furthermore, the prepared system can be downloaded and the simulation continued locally.

Photocontrol of Endogenous Glycine Receptors In Vivo.

Glycine receptors (GlyRs) are indispensable for maintaining excitatory/inhibitory balance in neuronal circuits that control reflexes and rhythmic motor behaviors. Here we have developed Glyght, a GlyR ligand controlled with light. It is selective over other Cys-loop receptors, is active in vivo, and displays an allosteric mechanism of action. The photomanipulation of glycinergic neurotransmission opens new avenues to understanding inhibitory circuits in intact animals and to developing drug-based phototherapies.

Ligand Pose Predictions for Human G Protein-Coupled Receptors: Insights from the Amber-Based Hybrid Molecular Mechanics/Coarse-Grained Approach.

Human G protein-coupled receptors (hGPCRs) are the most frequent targets of Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drugs. Structural bioinformatics, along with molecular simulation, can support structure-based drug design targeting hGPCRs. In this context, several years ago, we developed a hybrid molecular mechanics (MM)/coarse-grained (CG) approach to predict ligand poses in low-resolution hGPCR models. The approach was based on the GROMOS96 43A1 and PRODRG united-atom force fields for the MM part. Here, we present a new MM/CG implementation using, instead, the Amber 14SB and GAFF all-atom potentials for proteins and ligands, respectively. The new implementation outperforms the previous one, as shown by a variety of applications on models of hGPCR/ligand complexes at different resolutions, and it is also more user-friendly. Thus, it emerges as a useful tool to predict poses in low-resolution models and provides insights into ligand binding similarly to all-atom molecular dynamics, albeit at a lower computational cost.

Dual binding mode of "bitter sugars" to their human bitter taste receptor target.

The 25 human bitter taste receptors (hTAS2Rs) are responsible for detecting bitter molecules present in food, and they also play several physiological and pathological roles in extraoral compartments. Therefore, understanding their ligand specificity is important both for food research and for pharmacological applications. Here we provide a molecular insight into the exquisite molecular recognition of bitter ß-glycopyranosides by one of the members of this receptor subclass, hTAS2R16. Most of its agonists have in common the presence of a ß-glycopyranose unit along with an extremely structurally diverse aglycon moiety. This poses the question of how hTAS2R16 can recognize such a large number of "bitter sugars". By means of hybrid molecular mechanics/coarse grained molecular dynamics simulations, here we show that the three hTAS2R16 agonists salicin, arbutin and phenyl-ß-D-glucopyranoside interact with the receptor through a previously unrecognized dual binding mode. Such mechanism may offer a seamless way to fit different aglycons inside the binding cavity, while maintaining the sugar bound, similar to the strategy used by several carbohydrate-binding lectins. Our prediction is validated a posteriori by comparison with mutagenesis data and also rationalizes a wealth of structure-activity relationship data. Therefore, our findings not only provide a deeper molecular characterization of the binding determinants for the three ligands studied here, but also give insights applicable to other hTAS2R16 agonists. Together with our results for other hTAS2Rs, this study paves the way to improve our overall understanding of the structural determinants of ligand specificity in bitter taste receptors.

Characterization of cancer-associated IDH2 mutations that differ in tumorigenicity, chemosensitivity and 2-hydroxyglutarate production.

The family of isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) enzymes is vital for cellular metabolism, as IDH1 and IDH2 are required for the decarboxylation of isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate. Heterozygous somatic mutations in IDH1 or IDH2 genes have been detected in many cancers. They share the neomorphic production of the oncometabolite (R)-2-hydroxyglutarate [(R)-2-HG]. With respect to IDH2, it is unclear whether all IDH2 mutations display the same or differ in tumorigenic properties and degrees of chemosensitivity. Here, we evaluated the three most frequent IDH2 mutations occurring in cancer. The predicted changes to the enzyme structure introduced by these individual mutations are supported by the observed production of (R)-2-HG. However, their tumorigenic properties, response to chemotherapeutic agents, and baseline activation of STAT3 differed. Paradoxically, the varying levels of endogenous (R)-2-HG produced by each IDH2 mutant inversely correlated with their respective growth rates. Interestingly, while we found that (R)-2-HG stimulated the growth of non-transformed cells, (R)-2-HG also displayed antitumor activity by suppressing the growth of tumors harboring wild type IDH2. The mitogenic effect of (R)-2-HG in immortalized cells could be switched to antiproliferative by transformation with oncogenic RAS. Thus, our findings show that despite their shared (R)-2-HG production, IDH2 mutations are not alike and differ in shaping tumor cell behavior and response to chemotherapeutic agents. Our study also reveals that under certain conditions, (R)-2-HG has antitumor properties.