Current situation and barriers to women's leadership in health care education in Saudi Arabia: A cross-sectional study.

Background: The aims of the current study were to explore the true representation of female academic staff who have advanced to leadership positions in Saudi health academic institutions and to determine the possible barriers to women's advancement to leadership positions in academia. Methodology: This was a cross-sectional study conducted between August 2022 and August 2023 using an adapted self-reported online questionnaire via Google form. Data was analyzed descriptively and comparatively by presenting frequencies with percentages besides means with standard deviations across various background categories and comparing them using student t test. Results: A total of 115 educators in health care professions participated in the study, three fifths of them were Saudi and female, with the majority being married and employed by government organizations. The most impactful structural challenges for female leadership included the centralization of decision-making within the institution, unclear organizational bylaws for leadership qualifications and appointment processes, and the existence of a wide range of administrative units. The prevailing belief that men possess superior capacity and management skills compared to women in leadership roles and the reluctance to accept women's authority by their subordinates were identified as the most influential culture challenges for female leadership. Most influential personality-related challenges included difficulty of balancing professional responsibilities with family obligations, stress and tension arising from reconciling the needs of subordinates with organizational goals and the complexity of traveling for work. Conclusions: The study identified the most influential structural, culture, and personality-related barriers and other potential perceived challenges faced by female leadership. A collective effort involving academic institutions, leadership, and relevant stakeholders is critical to address these barriers. Academic institutions must eliminate these challenges to utilize female leaders' talent fully, as they contribute unique perspectives and skills to their institutions.

Stigma and inequality in the management of coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19)- patients among healthcare providers in Saudi Arabia and associated beliefs: A cross sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Stigma and discrimination (SAD) can greatly impact the management of Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19) patients. Studies examining SAD in managing COVID-19 patients in Saudi Arabia (SA) are limited. This study examined the discrimination and inequality in treating COVID-19 patients and the associated beliefs among healthcare workers (HCWs) during the pandemic. METHODS: This was a cross sectional study using an online self-administrated questionnaire by 414 HCWs from September 2022 to January 2023. RESULTS: Of the 414 participants, 53.4% aged 18-30 years, were males (53.4%), mostly Saudi (82.1%), and residents of western SA (90.8%). Almost one-third of the participants (32.1%) were physicians, and 23.7% were pharmacists. 53.1% of the HCWs had work experience < 5 years, 49.3% either had a current/previous COVID-19 infection and 10.1% (n = 42) reported treating ≥ 2000 COVID-19 patients. Most of the participants had not received training on avoiding discrimination against COVID-19 patients (n = 246; 59.4%) and denied receiving any incentives from their institution (n = 294; 71%) or community (n = 248; 59.9%) during the pandemic. Less than 20% of the HCWs had observed some sort of discrimination in providing care for COVID-19 patients. The responses significantly differed by nationality, educational level, specialty, workplace and COVID-19 infection status (P < 0.05). Approximately, 20% of the participants held negative beliefs about COVID-19 patients and these responses varied significantly by nationality, work experience, workplace, gender, and age (p < 0.05). Cross-tabulation and regression analyses showed some differences by gender, workplace, specialty and COVID-19 infection status. CONCLUSIONS: There was a low prevalence of negative beliefs about COVID-19 patients and a low prevalence of discriminatory behaviors in providing care for these patients in SA. Training and governmental regulations could further lower the prevalence of SAD against COVID-19 patients.

The role of blood groups, vaccine type and gender in predicting the severity of side effects among university students receiving COVID-19 vaccines.

On March 11th, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) a pandemic. To control the pandemic, billions of vaccine doses have been administered worldwide. Predictors of COVID-19 vaccine-related side effects are inconsistently described in the literature. This study aimed to identify the predictors of side effects' severity after COVID-19 vaccination among young adult students at Taif University (TU) in Saudi Arabia. An online, anonymous questionnaire was used. Descriptive statistics were calculated for numerical and categorical variables. Possible correlations with other characteristics were identified using the chi-square test. The study included 760 young adult participants from TU. Pain at the injection site (54.7%), headache (45.0%), lethargy and fatigue (43.3%), and fever (37.5%) were the most frequently reported COVID-19 vaccine-related side effects after the first dose. The most frequent side effects were reported among the 20-25-year-old age group for all doses of all vaccines. Females experienced remarkably more side effects after the second (p < 0.001) and third doses (p = 0.002). Moreover, ABO blood groups significantly correlated with vaccine-related side effects after the second dose (p = 0.020). The participants' general health status correlated with the side effects after the first and second doses (p < 0.001 and 0.022, respectively). The predictors of COVID-19 vaccine-related side effects in young, vaccinated people were blood group B, female gender, vaccine type, and poor health status.

Correlation between the severity of COVID-19 vaccine-related adverse events and the blood group of the vaccinees in Saudi Arabia: A web-based survey.

Background: Recent epidemiological studies have reported an association between the ABO blood group and the acquisition, symptom severity, and mortality rate of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). However, the association between the ABO blood group antigens and the type and severity of COVID-19 vaccine-related adverse reactions has not been elucidated. Patients and Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional, questionnaire-based study in Saudi Arabia from February to April 2022. The study cohort included adults who had received or were willing to receive at least two doses of a COVID-19 vaccine of any type. We used Chi-square test to assess the association between the ABO blood groups and vaccine-related adverse reactions. p values of <0.05 were considered significant. Results: Of the 1180 participants, approximately half were aged 18-30 years old, 69.2% were female, and 41.6% reported their blood group as O. The most frequent COVID-19 vaccine-related adverse reactions were fatigue (65%), pain at the injection site (56%), and headache (45.9%). These adverse reactions demonstrated significant correlations with the education level (p = 0.003) and nationality (p = 0.018) of the participants following the first dose, with gender (p < 0.001) following the second dose, and with the general health status (p < 0.001) after all the doses. Remarkably, no correlation was observed between the severity of the vaccine-related adverse reactions and ABO blood groups. Conclusion: Our findings do not support a correlation between the severity of COVID-19 vaccine-related adverse reactions and the ABO blood groups of the vaccinees. The creation of a national database is necessary to account for population differences.

Career Readiness Among Saudi Pharmacy Students: Exploring the Need for and the Impact of Career Counseling Services.

Purpose: Employers place emphasis on graduates' work experience and interpersonal skills while academia mainly focuses on developing students' learning ability. One proposed strategy is through career guidance by universities; however, supportive evidence is lacking. This study explored the career readiness of pharmacy students for the Saudi job market. It also examined the availability of career guidance services for pharmacy students and alumni in Saudi Arabia and the impact of such services on recipients' career path choices and development of competencies. Subjects and Methods: This cross-sectional study utilized an online-based survey. Pharmacy students in the last three years of their program and recent graduates participated in the survey. The study used descriptive statistics to describe participants' demographic data. Respondents were asked to rate aspects related to career readiness on a 5-point Likert scale, and their responses were reported as frequencies with percentages or means as appropriate. Comparisons between groups were made using t-test or one- way ANOVA as required. Results: A total of 576 responses were collected. About 25% of participants acknowledged the career guidance services provided at their pharmacy college, whereas the majority indicated that they have never reached out to a career counselor at their university (89.6%). The highest level of disagreement was noticed in impact of career guidance services on participants' establishment of their CV/portfolio (50.7%). Using the work readiness scale, the lowest mean was seen in the social intelligence domain (3.64 ± 0.94). Conclusion: Although substantial proportion of students reported the presence of career guidance services in their university or college, very few stated that they had utilized such services. This could have impacted the students' career readiness for the rapidly changing Saudi job market. Therefore, proper measures to advertise the availability of career guidance services in Saudi pharmacy schools have to be implemented.

Medication Non-Adherence among Patients with Chronic Diseases in Makkah Region.

BACKGROUND: The Makkah region is the most populated region in Saudi Arabia. Studying medication adherence levels may help to improve general health outcomes and decrease overall health care expenditures. METHODS: We used the ARMS scale to assess medication adherence. Bivariable analysis of medication non-adherence was performed. Simple and multiple logistic regression models were built to identify factors associated with medication non-adherence. RESULTS: Participants from the Makkah region were more than two times more likely to be non-adherent to their medications compared to other regions (adjusted OR = 2.58, 95% CI: 1.49-4.46). Patients who dispensed their prescriptions at their own expense were two times more likely to be non-adherents (adjusted OR = 2.36, 95% CI: 1.11-4.98). Patients who had a monthly income ≤6000 SR were almost two times more likely to be non-adherents (unadjusted OR = 1.73, 95% CI: 1.05-2.84). CONCLUSION: Medication adherence is one of the most important factors to help managing the disease. We found that Makkah chronic patients are more likely to be non-adherent with their medications compared to other regions' patients. Moreover, we found that lower monthly incomes and paying for medications out-of-pocket were significant predictors of medication non-adherence.

The use of metformin for type 2 diabetes prevention: Observational multicenter study from Saudi Arabia.

Background: Patients with prediabetes are at higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes. While intensive lifestyle modification is the primary approach to delaying diabetes, metformin has been shown to be effective, especially among patients younger than 60 years and obese (body mass index (BMI) > 35 kg/m2), patients with fasting blood glucose ≥ 6.1 mmol/L or HbA1c ≥ 6%, and women with history of gestational diabetes. Thus, metformin is now recommended as an option for diabetes prevention by the American Diabetes Association (ADA). The use of metformin among patients with prediabetes in Saudi Arabia and their adherence to the guideline's recommendation for the prevention of type 2 diabetes is unknown. This study aimed to identify the prevalence of metformin use among prediabetes patients overall and patients who are more likely to benefit from metformin use per the ADA guidelines. Methods: A retrospective cohort study was conducted encompassing data from three tertiary care hospitals between January 2015 and June 2019. All patients aged 20 to 70 years with prediabetes (HbA1c of 5.7-6.4%) were included, while patients with an established diagnosis of diabetes, creatinine clearance <45 ml/min, using antihyperglycemic medications other than metformin, or on metformin for other indications were excluded. Prediabetes patients who are most likely to benefit from metformin for type 2 diabetes prevention are those younger than 60 years with a BMI ≥ 35 kg/m2, patients with fasting blood glucose ≥ 6.1 mmol/L or HbA1c ≥ 6%, and women with history of gestational diabetes. This study examined the prevalence of metformin use among all patients with prediabetes, as well as patients who would be more likely to benefit from metformin use per the ADA guidelines. Results: A total of 251 patients were included in this study; 52.2% were female, with a mean age of 47.0 (11.9) years and BMI of 32.3 (6.5) kg/m2, and the median HbA1c at baseline was 5.8% (5.7-6.0). Among the overall sample, 18 patients (7.2%) received metformin for the prevention of type 2 diabetes, 14 of those were from the groups that are more likely to benefit from metformin use per the ADA guidelines (9.9%). Conclusions: Among individuals with prediabetes in Saudi Arabia, metformin use was very low despite the evidence supporting its safety, convenience, and efficacy. Healthcare providers seemed hesitant to medicalize prediabetes; furthermore, the low use of metformin suggests the existence of several barriers that need to be identified and resolved. Increasing providers' knowledge and awareness regarding screening and management of prediabetes is highly encouraged.

Corrigendum: Parents' Hesitancy to Vaccinate Their 5-11-Year-Old Children Against COVID-19 in Saudi Arabia: Predictors From the Health Belief Model.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.842862.].

Parents' Hesitancy to Vaccinate Their 5-11-Year-Old Children Against COVID-19 in Saudi Arabia: Predictors From the Health Belief Model.

Data exploring parents' hesitancy to vaccinate their 5-11-year-old children against COVID-19, and associated factors, is limited. This study aims to investigate parents' beliefs and intentions to vaccinate their 5-11-year-old children using the Health Belief Model in Saudi Arabia. A national, cross-sectional, questionnaire-based study was conducted in November, 2021. The self-administered online questionnaire was distributed to a random sample of parents. Adult parents with at least one 5-11-year-old child were included. The main outcome was parents' intention to vaccinate their 5-11-year-old children. Variability in parents' intention was assessed by demographics, COVID-19-related factors, children's health status, and constructs from the Health Belief Model. Univariate and multivariable logistic regression were used to investigate each factor and adjust for the intervariable effect on parental intention to vaccinate their children. Of the 4,135 participants, 61.9% were hesitant to vaccinate their 5-11-year-old children. Parents aged 31 to 40 years (OR = 1.23; 95% CI, 1.02-1.49) and females (OR = 1.52; 95% CI, 1.25-1.84) had higher odds of being hesitant to vaccinate their children than parents from other groups. Parents who perceived low benefit from the vaccine (OR = 16.3; 95% CI, 12.1-21.9) or who had safety or efficacy concerns (OR = 3.76; 95% CI, 3.10-4.58) were among the most hesitant to vaccinate their children. In conclusion, vaccine hesitancy is prevalent among parents of 5-11-year-old children in Saudi Arabia and those who had beliefs of minimal benefits or lack of safety from the COVID-19 vaccine were more hesitant. Government efforts must be directed toward increasing parents' vaccine awareness and tackling the constructs of the Health Belief Model through a well-designed vaccination campaign.