Educational inequalities and premature mortality: the Cuba Prospective Study.

BACKGROUND: Although socioeconomic status is a major determinant of premature mortality in many populations, the impact of social inequalities on premature mortality in Cuba, a country with universal education and health care, remains unclear. We aimed to assess the association between educational level and premature adult mortality in Cuba. METHODS: The Cuba Prospective Study (a cohort study) enrolled 146 556 adults aged 30 years and older from the general population in five provinces from Jan 1, 1996, to Nov 24, 2002. Participants were followed up until Jan 1, 2017, for cause-specific mortality. Deaths were identified through linkage to the Cuban Public Health Ministry's national mortality records. Cox regression models yielded rate ratios (RRs) for the effect of educational level (a commonly used measure for social status) on mortality at ages 35-74 years, with assessment for the mediating effects of smoking, alcohol consumption, and BMI. FINDINGS: A total of 127 273 participants aged 35-74 years were included in the analyses. There was a strong inverse association between educational level and premature mortality. Compared with a university education, men who did not complete primary education had an approximately 60% higher risk of premature mortality (RR 1·55, 95% CI 1·40-1·72), while the risk was approximately doubled in women (1·96, 1·81-2·13). Overall, 28% of premature deaths could be attributed to lower education levels. Excess mortality in women was primarily due to vascular disease, while vascular disease and cancer were equally important in men. 31% of the association with education in men and 18% in women could be explained by common modifiable risk factors, with smoking having the largest effect. INTERPRETATION: This study highlights the value of understanding the determinants of health inequalities in different populations. Although many major determinants lie outside the health system in Cuba, this study has identified the diseases and risk factors that require targeted public health interventions, particularly smoking. FUNDING: UK Medical Research Council, British Heart Foundation, Cancer Research UK, CDC Foundation (with support from Amgen).

Modelo estadístico para estimar el impacto histórico de la influenza sobre la mortalidad en Cuba / Statistical model to estimate the historical impact of influenza on mortality in Cuba

Introducción: La influenza tiene elevado impacto en la mortalidad humana y en Cuba la categoría influenza y neumonía ocupa el cuarto lugar entre sus causales generales. En los países templados, con marcada estacionalidad, esto se capta con modelos estadísticos, tarea que se dificulta en el trópico y pendiente en Cuba por la ausencia de igual definición estacional. Objetivo: Estimar el impacto histórico de la influenza tipo A y B y los subtipos A(H3N2) y A(H1N1) sobre la mortalidad mediante el ajuste de un modelo de regresión a las condiciones estacionales específicas de Cuba. Métodos: Se ejecutó un estudio longitudinal y retrospectivo. En un primer paso se ajustaron dos modelos de Poisson con la mortalidad influenza y neumonía total y las personas ≥ 65 años de edad como variables respuestas en los cinco meses de mayor positividad en influenza, desde la temporada 1987-1988 hasta la 2004-2005 y los positivos en tipo A y en tipo B como explicatorias. En otro par de modelos se estimó el impacto del A(H3N2) y el A(H1N1), considerando como respuesta los fallecidos atribuidos previamente al tipo A. Resultados: Se atribuyeron a la influenza 7803 fallecidos entre todas las edades y 6152 entre las personas ≥ 65 años de edad, con un 56,3 por ciento asociados al A(H3N2), el 17,6 por ciento al A(H1N1) y el 26,1 por ciento al tipo B. Conclusiones. Se logró estimar el impacto de la influenza sobre la mortalidad mediante el ajuste para Cuba de un modelo estadístico que permitió demostrar la asociación de la circulación de estos virus con la mortalidad en el país, lo que ratifica la necesidad de reforzar la vigilancia, el control y la vacunación contra esta infección viral. Se demuestra la posibilidad de ajustar estos modelos de regresión a otros virus respiratorios y a la actual pandemia por la COVID-19, en las condiciones estacionales de Cuba(AU)

Introduction: Influenza has a high impact on human mortality and in Cuba influenza and pneumonia rank fourth among its general causes. In temperate climate countries, with marked seasonality, this is captured by statistical models, a task that is difficult in the tropics and pending in Cuba due to the absence of the same seasonal definition. Objective: Estimate the historical impact of influenza type A and B and subtypes A(H3N2) and A(H1N1) on mortality, by adjusting a regression model to the specific seasonal conditions of Cuba. Methods: A longitudinal and retrospective study was performed. In a first step, two Poisson models were adjusted with influenza and total pneumonia mortality and people ≥ 65 years old as response variables in the five months with the highest positivity to influenza in the period 1987-1988 to 2004-2005, and the positive ones to type A and type B as explanatory variables. In another pair of models was estimated the impact of A(H3N2) and A(H1N1), considering as a response the deaths previously attributed to type A. Results: 7 803 deaths among all ages and 6 152 among 65-year-olds were attributed to influenza, with 56.3 percent associated to A(H3N2), 17.6 percent to A(H1N1) and 26.1 percent to type B. Conclusions: It was possible to estimate the impact of influenza on mortality by adjusting for Cuba a statistical model that demonstrated the association of the circulation of these viruses with the mortality in the country, which confirms the need to strengthen surveillance, control and vaccination against this viral infection. The possibility of adjusting in the seasonal conditions of Cuba these regression models to other respiratory viruses and the current pandemic by COVID-19 is demonstrated(AU)

Alcohol consumption and cause-specific mortality in Cuba: prospective study of 120 623 adults.

BACKGROUND: The associations of cause-specific mortality with alcohol consumption have been studied mainly in higher-income countries. We relate alcohol consumption to mortality in Cuba. METHODS: In 1996-2002, 146 556 adults were recruited into a prospective study from the general population in five areas of Cuba. Participants were interviewed, measured and followed up by electronic linkage to national death registries until January 1, 2017. After excluding all with missing data or chronic disease at recruitment, Cox regression (adjusted for age, sex, province, education, and smoking) was used to relate mortality rate ratios (RRs) at ages 35-79 years to alcohol consumption. RRs were corrected for long-term variability in alcohol consumption using repeat measures among 20 593 participants resurveyed in 2006-08. FINDINGS: After exclusions, there were 120 623 participants aged 35-79 years (mean age 52 [SD 12]; 67 694 [56%] women). At recruitment, 22 670 (43%) men and 9490 (14%) women were current alcohol drinkers, with 15 433 (29%) men and 3054 (5%) women drinking at least weekly; most alcohol consumption was from rum. All-cause mortality was positively and continuously associated with weekly alcohol consumption: each additional 35cl bottle of rum per week (110g of pure alcohol) was associated with ∼10% higher risk of all-cause mortality (RR 1.08 [95%CI 1.05-1.11]). The major causes of excess mortality in weekly drinkers were cancer, vascular disease, and external causes. Non-drinkers had ∼10% higher risk (RR 1.11 [1.09-1.14]) of all-cause mortality than those in the lowest category of weekly alcohol consumption (<1 bottle/week), but this association was almost completely attenuated on exclusion of early follow-up. INTERPRETATION: In this large prospective study in Cuba, weekly alcohol consumption was continuously related to premature mortality. Reverse causality is likely to account for much of the apparent excess risk among non-drinkers. The findings support limits to alcohol consumption that are lower than present recommendations in Cuba. FUNDING: Medical Research Council, British Heart Foundation, Cancer Research UK, CDC Foundation (with support from Amgen).

Burden of hypertension and associated risks for cardiovascular mortality in Cuba: a prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: In Cuba, hypertension control in primary care has been prioritised as a cost-effective means of addressing premature death from cardiovascular disease. However, there is little evidence from large-scale studies on the prevalence and management of hypertension in Cuba, and no direct evidence of the expected benefit of such efforts on cardiovascular mortality. METHODS: In a prospective cohort study, adults in the general population identified via local family medical practices were interviewed between Jan 1, 1996, and Nov 24, 2002, in five areas of Cuba, and a subset of participants were resurveyed between July 14, 2006, and Oct 19, 2008, in one area. During household visits, blood pressure was measured and information obtained on diagnosis and treatment of hypertension. We calculated the prevalence of hypertension (systolic blood pressure ≥140 mm Hg or diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mm Hg, or receiving treatment for hypertension) and the proportion of people with hypertension in whom it was diagnosed, treated, and controlled (systolic blood pressure <140 mm Hg, diastolic blood pressure <90 mm Hg). Deaths were identified through linkage by national identification numbers to the Cuban Public Health Ministry records, to Dec 31, 2016. We used Cox regression analysis to compare cardiovascular mortality between participants with versus without uncontrolled hypertension. Rate ratios (RRs) were used to estimate the fraction of cardiovascular deaths attributable to hypertension. FINDINGS: 146 556 participants were interviewed in the baseline survey in 1996-2002 and 24 345 were interviewed in the resurvey in 2006-08. After exclusion for incomplete data and age outside the range of interest, 136 111 respondents aged 35-79 years (mean age 54 [SD 12] years; 75 947 [56%] women, 60 164 [44%] men) were eligible for inclusion in the analyses. 34% of participants had hypertension. Among these, 67% had a diagnosis of hypertension. 76% of participants with diagnosed hypertension were receiving treatment and blood pressure was controlled in 36% of those people. During 1·7 million person-years of follow-up there were 5707 cardiovascular deaths. In the age groups 35-59, 60-69, and 70-79 years, uncontrolled hypertension at baseline was associated with RRs of 2·15 (95% CI 1·88-2·46), 1·86 (1·69-2·05), and 1·41 (1·32-1·52), respectively, and accounted for around 20% of premature cardiovascular deaths. INTERPRETATION: In this Cuban population, a third of people had hypertension. Although levels of hypertension diagnosis and treatment were commensurate with those in some high-income countries, the proportion of participants whose blood pressure was controlled was low. As well as reducing hypertension prevalence, improvement in blood pressure control among people with diagnosed hypertension is required to prevent premature cardiovascular deaths in Cuba. FUNDING: Medical Research Council, British Heart Foundation, Cancer Research UK.

Calidad de las estadísticas de mortalidad materna en Cuba, 2013

[RESUMEN]. Objetivos. Evaluar el grado de integridad del registro estadístico cubano de muertes maternas y la calidad de la clasificación de las causas de muerte recogidas en ese registro. Métodos. Se analizó la información de todas las cubanas fallecidas en edad fértil en el año 2013 según el registro continuo de mortalidad de la Dirección de Registros Médicos y Estadísticas de Salud del Ministerio de Salud Pública de Cuba (MINSAP), independientemente de la causa básica de muerte consignada. Cuatro grupos de investigación (nacional, de expertos, provincial y de unidades de salud), con funciones definidas, aplicaron cuatro formularios para determinar si hubo embarazo en el año previo a la defunción, reevaluar si los casos correspondían a una muerte materna y, en ese caso, revisar la clasificación. Resultados. Se investigaron las 2 731 mujeres fallecidas en edad reproductiva notificadas en Cuba en el 2013; de ellas las causas de muerte de 2 711 (99,3%) resultaron concluyentes y, de estas, 97 (3,6%) habían tenido un embarazo en el año previo a la defunción. Se encontraron 50 muertes maternas (una más que en el registro continuo) para 2% de error y un factor de ajuste de 1,02. De las 97 muertes estudiadas, solo se reclasificaron 4 casos: 2 muertes maternas y 1 muerte relacionada con el embarazo, el parto y el puerperio, según el registro continuo, que se reclasificaron como muertes directas, y 1 muerte considerada no materna por el registro continuo que se reclasificó como muerte materna tardía, para una concordancia de 95,9%. Conclusiones. La información sobre las muertes maternas recogida en el registro continuo de mortalidad del MINSAP tiene un alto nivel de integridad. La calidad de la clasificación de las muertes maternas en ese registro es elevada, al existir muy pocos cambios en la reclasificación de las causas de muerte.

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. Evaluate the degree of integrity of the Cuban statistical registry of maternal deaths and the quality of the classification of the causes of death included in that registry. Methods. We analyzed the information of all Cuban women who died in fertile age in 2013 according to the continuous mortality registry of the Directorate of Medical Records and Health Statistics of the Ministry of Public Health of Cuba (MINSAP), regardless of the main cause of death informed. Four research groups (national, expert, provincial and health units), each with defined functions, applied four forms to establish if the women had been pregnant in the year prior to death, to reassess whether the cases corresponded to a maternal death and, in that case, to review the classification. Results. Deaths of 2 731 women of reproductive age notified in Cuba in 2013 were assessed. Of them, the cause of death of 2 711 (99.3%) was conclusive and, of these, 97 (3.6%) had had a pregnancy in the year prior to death. We found 50 maternal deaths (one more than in the continuous registry) for a 2% error and an adjustment factor of 1.02. Of the 97 deaths studied, only 4 cases were reclassified: 2 maternal deaths and 1 death related to pregnancy, delivery and puerperium, according to the continuous registry, which were reclassified as direct deaths; and 1 death considered non-maternal by the continuous registry that was reclassified as late maternal death, for a 95.9% concordance. Conclusions. The information on maternal deaths included in the MINSAP’s continuous mortality registry has a high level of integrity. The quality of the classification of maternal deaths in this registry is high; reclassification of causes of death is uncommon.

[RESUMO]. Objetivos. Avaliar o grau de integridade do registro estatístico cubano de óbitos maternos e a qualidade da classificação das causas de óbito incluídas nesse registro. Métodos. Analisamos a informação de todas as mulheres cubanas que morreram em idade fértil em 2013 de acordo com o histórico de mortalidade contínua da Diretoria de Registros Médicos e Estatísticas de Saúde do Ministério da Saúde Pública de Cuba (MINSAP), independentemente da causa básica da morte consignada. Quatro grupos de pesquisa (nacional, especialistas, provincial e unidades de saúde), com funções definidas, aplicaram quatro formas para determinar se houve gravidez no ano anterior à morte, reavaliam se os casos corresponderam a uma morte materna e, em nesse caso, rever a classificação. Resultados. Foram investigadas as 2 731 mulheres falecidas de idade reprodutiva notificadas em Cuba em 2013, das quais as causas de morte de 2 711 (99,3%) foram conclusivas e, destas, 97 (3,6%) tiveram gravidez no ano anterior à morte. Encontramos 50 mortes maternas (uma mais do que no registro contínuo) por erro de 2% e um fator de ajuste de 1,02. Das 97 mortes estudadas, apenas 4 casos foram reclassificados: 2 mortes maternas e 1 morte relacionada à gravidez, parto e puerpério, de acordo com o registro contínuo, que foram reclassificadas como mortes diretas, e 1 morte considerada não materna pelo registro contínuo que foi reclassificada como morte materna tardia, para uma concordância de 95,9%. Conclusões. A informação sobre mortes maternas incluída no registro de mortalidade contínua do MINSAP tem alto nível de integridade. A qualidade da classificação das mortes maternas neste registro é alta; a reclassificação das causas de morte é pouco frequente.

Diferencias de mortalidad entre sexos en Cuba en el contexto internacional / Sex differences in mortality in Cuba compared to the international context

Objetivo: identificar cambios en la mortalidad entre sexos en la población cubana, en contraste con lo observado en otros países. Métodos: investigación descriptiva y documental (1950-2015). Se analizó la contribución de las edades a la esperanza de vida al nacer por sexos y países. Las comparaciones se realizaron con los modelos de mortalidad de Coale Demeny y la mortalidad de Japón del año 2000. Resultados: el patrón de mortalidad de la mujer cubana se asemeja al de los países desarrollados, mientras que el diferencial por sexo fue semejante al de los menos desarrollados. Al comparar la mortalidad de las mujeres y los hombres cubanos con los de sus homólogos en el modelo de mortalidad de Coale y Demeny, los hombres cubanos se encontraron en ventajas, lo contrario ocurrió con las mujeres cubanas, lo que expresó reservas en su patrón de mortalidad y en consecuencia, en la esperanza de vida de los cubanos. Al comparar el patrón de supervivencia de Cuba con el de Japón, las mayores potencialidades para la supervivencia de los cubanos fueron a expensas de la mujer adulta a partir de los 35 años. Conclusiones: los cambios del diferencial por sexo de la esperanza de vida al nacer de la población cubana se mantiene con poca variación en contraste con otros países. Las principales reservas en materia de mortalidad de la población cubana, se encuentra en la mujer, especialmente en la mujer de edad adulta y en ella, en las de 60 años y más

Objective: To identify the changes in mortality by sex occurred in the Cuban population in comparison with the changes observed in other countries. Methods: Descriptive and documentary research study (1950-2015). Arriaga's method was used to analyze the contribution of age groups to life expectancy at birth by sex and countries. The comparisons used Coale and Demeny's mortality model and the mortality rates of Japan in 2000. Results: The pattern of mortality in the Cuban females was similar to that of the developed countries, whereas the differences by sex were comparable to that of the less developed nations. When making the comparison between the Cuban men and women mortality rates with those in the Coale and Demeny's mortality model, the Cuban men were found in an advantageous position, but the Cuban women were not, which expressed reserves in their pattern of mortality, and consequently, in the life expectancies of the Cubans. In comparison of the pattern of survival of Cuba with that of Japan, the biggest potentialities for the survival of Cubans were at the expense of the adult female aged 35 years and over. Conclusions: The changes of sex differences in the life expectancies at birth of the Cuban population are small if compared to those of other countries. The main reserves in terms of mortality of the Cuban population lie in the female, particularly the adult woman aged 60 years and over

Diferencias de mortalidad entre sexos en Cuba en el contexto internacional / Sex differences in mortality in Cuba compared to the international context

Objetivo: identificar cambios en la mortalidad entre sexos en la población cubana, en contraste con lo observado en otros países. Métodos: investigación descriptiva y documental (1950-2015). Se analizó la contribución de las edades a la esperanza de vida al nacer por sexos y países. Las comparaciones se realizaron con los modelos de mortalidad de Coale Demeny y la mortalidad de Japón del año 2000. Resultados: el patrón de mortalidad de la mujer cubana se asemeja al de los países desarrollados, mientras que el diferencial por sexo fue semejante al de los menos desarrollados. Al comparar la mortalidad de las mujeres y los hombres cubanos con los de sus homólogos en el modelo de mortalidad de Coale y Demeny, los hombres cubanos se encontraron en ventajas, lo contrario ocurrió con las mujeres cubanas, lo que expresó reservas en su patrón de mortalidad y en consecuencia, en la esperanza de vida de los cubanos. Al comparar el patrón de supervivencia de Cuba con el de Japón, las mayores potencialidades para la supervivencia de los cubanos fueron a expensas de la mujer adulta a partir de los 35 años. Conclusiones: los cambios del diferencial por sexo de la esperanza de vida al nacer de la población cubana se mantiene con poca variación en contraste con otros países. Las principales reservas en materia de mortalidad de la población cubana, se encuentra en la mujer, especialmente en la mujer de edad adulta y en ella, en las de 60 años y más(AU)

Objective: To identify the changes in mortality by sex occurred in the Cuban population in comparison with the changes observed in other countries. Methods: Descriptive and documentary research study (1950-2015). Arriaga's method was used to analyze the contribution of age groups to life expectancy at birth by sex and countries. The comparisons used Coale and Demeny's mortality model and the mortality rates of Japan in 2000. Results: The pattern of mortality in the Cuban females was similar to that of the developed countries, whereas the differences by sex were comparable to that of the less developed nations. When making the comparison between the Cuban men and women mortality rates with those in the Coale and Demeny's mortality model, the Cuban men were found in an advantageous position, but the Cuban women were not, which expressed reserves in their pattern of mortality, and consequently, in the life expectancies of the Cubans. In comparison of the pattern of survival of Cuba with that of Japan, the biggest potentialities for the survival of Cubans were at the expense of the adult female aged 35 years and over. Conclusions: The changes of sex differences in the life expectancies at birth of the Cuban population are small if compared to those of other countries. The main reserves in terms of mortality of the Cuban population lie in the female, particularly the adult woman aged 60 years and over(AU)

Prevalencia de alteraciones de la salud mental y factores de riesgo relevantes / Prevalence of mental health disorders and relevant risk factors

Dada la alta prevalencia de los trastornos de salud mental en atención primaria y el alto por ciento de pacientes que escapan de este diagnóstico, se han desarrollado instrumentos como el Cuestionario de Salud General de Goldberg cuya utilidad diagnóstica en nuestro medio requiere de evaluación práctica. En la presente investigación se utilizó dicho cuestionario para determinar la posible prevalencia de alteraciones de la salud mental en nuestra área, además se conformó un estudio de casos y controles evaluándose posibles variables de riesgo para ambos grupos con el fin de conocer si existía en los casos mayor riesgo de alteración de la salud mental. La prevalencia detectada es comparable con otros estudios y las variables mostraron todas una relación interesante con la alteración de la salud mental. La hipótesis de nuestro trabajo quedó demostrada. El Cuestionario de Salud General de Goldberg constituye un instrumento útil para el médico en atención primaria

Prevalencia de alteraciones de la salud mental y factores de riesgo relevantes / Prevalence of mental health disorders and relevant risk factors

Dada la alta prevalencia de los trastornos de salud mental en atención primaria y el alto por ciento de pacientes que escapan de este diagnóstico, se han desarrollado instrumentos como el Cuestionario de Salud General de Goldberg cuya utilidad diagnóstica en nuestro medio requiere de evaluación práctica. En la presente investigación se utilizó dicho cuestionario para determinar la posible prevalencia de alteraciones de la salud mental en nuestra área, además se conformó un estudio de casos y controles evaluándose posibles variables de riesgo para ambos grupos con el fin de conocer si existía en los casos mayor riesgo de alteración de la salud mental. La prevalencia detectada es comparable con otros estudios y las variables mostraron todas una relación interesante con la alteración de la salud mental. La hipótesis de nuestro trabajo quedó demostrada. El Cuestionario de Salud General de Goldberg constituye un instrumento útil para el médico en atención primaria(AU)