Guardians and Mediators of Metastasis: Exploring T Lymphocytes, Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells, and Tumor-Associated Macrophages in the Breast Cancer Microenvironment.

Breast cancers (BCs) are solid tumors composed of heterogeneous tissues consisting of cancer cells and an ever-changing tumor microenvironment (TME). The TME includes, among other non-cancer cell types, immune cells influencing the immune context of cancer tissues. In particular, the cross talk of immune cells and their interactions with cancer cells dramatically influence BC dissemination, immunoediting, and the outcomes of cancer therapies. Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) represent prominent immune cell populations of breast TMEs, and they have important roles in cancer immunoescape and dissemination. Therefore, in this article we review the features of TILs, TAMs, and MDSCs in BCs. Moreover, we highlight the mechanisms by which these immune cells remodel the immune TME and lead to breast cancer metastasis.

Infiltrating macrophages amplify doxorubicin-induced cardiac damage: role of catecholamines.

BACKGROUND: The functional contribution of non-myocyte cardiac cells, such as inflammatory cells, in the setup of heart failure in response to doxorubicin (Dox) is recently becoming of growing interest. OBJECTIVES: The study aims to evaluate the role of macrophages in cardiac damage elicited by Dox treatment. METHODS: C57BL/6 mice were treated with one intraperitoneal injection of Dox (20 mg/kg) and followed up for 5 days by cardiac ultrasounds (CUS), histological, and flow cytometry evaluations. We also tested the impact of Dox in macrophage-depleted mice. Rat cardiomyoblasts were directly treated with Dox (D-Dox) or with a conditioned medium from cultured murine macrophages treated with Dox (M-Dox). RESULTS: In response to Dox, macrophage infiltration preceded cardiac damage. Macrophage depletion prevents Dox-induced damage, suggesting a key role of these cells in promoting cardiotoxicity. To evaluate the crosstalk between macrophages and cardiac cells in response to DOX, we compared the effects of D-Dox and M-Dox in vitro. Cell vitality was lower in cardiomyoblasts and apoptosis was higher in response to M-Dox compared with D-Dox. These events were linked to p53-induced mitochondria morphology, function, and autophagy alterations. We identify a mechanistic role of catecholamines released by Dox-activated macrophages that lead to mitochondrial apoptosis of cardiac cells through ß-AR stimulation. CONCLUSIONS: Our data indicate that crosstalk between macrophages and cardiac cells participates in cardiac damage in response to Dox.

Calcium/Calmodulin-Dependent Kinases in the Hypothalamus, Pituitary, and Pineal Gland: An Overview.

We review the literature on the little-known roles of specific CaMKs in regulating endocrine functions of the pineal gland, the pituitary gland, and the hypothalamus. Melatonin activates hippocampal CaMKII, which then influences dendritogenesis. In the pituitary gland, the signal pathways activated by the CaMK in lower vertebrates, such as fishes, differ from those of mammals. In the teleost anterior pituitary, the activation of CaMKII induces the expression of somatolactin by glucagon b. In rats and humans, CaMKIVs have been associated with gonadotropes and thyrotropes and CaMKII with several types of human tumor cells and with a specific signaling pathway. Neuropeptides such as vasopressin and endothelin are also involved in the CaMKII signaling chain, as is the CaMKIIδ isoform which participates in generating the circadian rhythms of the suprachiasmatic nucleus. What arises from this review is that most of the hypothalamic CaMKs are involved in activities of the endocrine brain. Furthermore, among the CaMKs, type II occurs with the highest frequency followed by CaMKIV and CaMKI.

Analysis of calretinin early expression in the rat hippocampus after beta amyloid (1-42) peptide injection.

It has already been reported that cannabinoids are neuroprotective agents against excitotoxicity in vitro and increase after acute brain damage in vivo. This background prompted us to study the localization and expression of the calcium -binding protein calretinin in a condition similar to Alzheimer disease and its possible relationship with cannabinoids and their supposed protective role. We carried out quantitative analysis of the transient changes in calretinin expression shown by hybridochemistry within neuronal cell populations in the hippocampus of a beta amyloid-treated rat model of Alzheimer's disease and their correlation with endocannabinoid increase. Calretinin expression increases throughout the first week after cortical amyloid-beta peptide injection, and then decreases towards normal levels in the rat hippocampus during the following weeks, indicating that decreased calretinin gene expression may be associated with either increase of endocannabinoids or VDM11-induced accumulation of endocannabinoids. In contrast, SR1, an antagonist, which limits the cannabinoid effect by selective binding to the cannabinoid receptor CB1, up-regulates calretinin expression with respect to non-treated rats. This could mean that the SR1 endocannabinoid-blocking action through CB1 receptors, that are normally stimulated by endocannabinoids to inhibit calcium increase, might cause a higher calretinin expression. This would allow us to speculate on a possible reverse relationship between endocannabinoid and calretinin levels in the hippocampal calcium-homeostasis balance.

Effects of propionyl-L-carnitine on ischemia-reperfusion injury in hamster cheek pouch microcirculation.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Propionyl-l-carnitine (pLc) exerts protective effects in different experimental models of ischemia-reperfusion (I/R). The aim of the present study was to assess the effects of intravenously and topically applied pLc on microvascular permeability increase induced by I/R in the hamster cheek pouch preparation. METHODS: The hamster cheek pouch microcirculation was visualized by fluorescence microscopy. Microvascular permeability, leukocyte adhesion to venular walls, perfused capillary length, and capillary red blood cell velocity (V(RBC)) were evaluated by computer-assisted methods. E-selectin expression was assessed by in vitro analysis. Lipid peroxidation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation were determined by thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) and 2'-7'-dichlorofluorescein (DCF), respectively. RESULTS: In control animals, I/R caused a significant increase in permeability and in the leukocyte adhesion in venules. Capillary perfusion and V(RBC) decreased. TBARS levels and DCF fluorescence significantly increased compared with baseline. Intravenously infused pLc dose-dependently prevented leakage and leukocyte adhesion, preserved capillary perfusion, and induced vasodilation at the end of reperfusion, while ROS concentration decreased. Inhibition of nitric oxide synthase prior to pLc caused vasoconstriction and partially blunted the pLc-induced protective effects; inhibition of the endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor (EDHF) abolished pLc effects. Topical application of pLc on cheek pouch membrane produced the same effects as observed with intravenous administration. pLc decreased the E-selectin expression. CONCLUSIONS: pLc prevents microvascular changes induced by I/R injury. The reduction of permeability increase could be mainly due to EDHF release induce vasodilatation together with NO. The reduction of E-selectin expression prevents leukocyte adhesion and permeability increase.

In vivo properties of the proangiogenic peptide QK.

The main regulator of neovascularization is Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF). We recently demonstrated that QK, a de novo engineered VEGF mimicking peptide, shares in vitro the same biological properties of VEGF, inducing capillary formation and organization. On these grounds, the aim of this study is to evaluate in vivo the effects of this small peptide. Therefore, on Wistar Kyoto rats, we evaluated vasomotor responses to VEGF and QK in common carotid rings. Also, we assessed the effects of QK in three different models of angiogenesis: ischemic hindlimb, wound healing and Matrigel plugs. QK and VEGF present similar endothelium-dependent vasodilatation. Moreover, the ability of QK to induce neovascularization was confirmed us by digital angiographies, dyed beads dilution and histological analysis in the ischemic hindlimb as well as by histology in wounds and Matrigel plugs. Our findings show the proangiogenic properties of QK, suggesting that also in vivo this peptide resembles the full VEGF protein. These data open to new fields of investigation on the mechanisms of activation of VEGF receptors, offering clinical implications for treatment of pathophysiological conditions such as chronic ischemia.

The G-protein-coupled receptor kinase 5 inhibits NFkappaB transcriptional activity by inducing nuclear accumulation of IkappaB alpha.

G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) kinases, GRKs, are known as serine/threonine kinases that regulate GPCR signaling, but recent findings propose functions for these kinases besides receptor desensitization. Indeed, GRK5 can translocate to the nucleus by means of a nuclear localization sequence, suggesting that this kinase regulates transcription events in the nucleus. To evaluate the effect of GRK5-IkappaB alpha interaction on NFkappaB signaling, we induced the overexpression and the knockdown of GRK5 in cell cultures. GRK5 overexpression causes nuclear accumulation of IkappaB alpha, leading to the inhibition of NFkappaB transcriptional activity. Opposite results are achieved by GRK5 knockdown through siRNA. A physical interaction between GRK5 and IkappaB alpha, rather than phosphorylative events, appears as the underlying mechanism. We identify the regulator of gene protein signaling homology domain of GRK5 (RH) and the N-terminal domain of IkappaB alpha as the regions involved in such interaction. To confirm the biological relevance of this mechanism of regulation for NFkappaB, we evaluated the effects of GRK5-RH on NFkappaB-dependent phenotypes. In particular, GRK5-RH overexpression impairs apoptosis protection and cytokine production in vitro and inflammation and tissue regeneration in vivo. Our results reveal an unexpected role for GRK5 in the regulation of NFkappaB transcription activity. Placing these findings in perspective, this mechanism may represent a therapeutic target for all those conditions involving excessive NFkappaB activity.

Exercise promotes angiogenesis and improves beta-adrenergic receptor signalling in the post-ischaemic failing rat heart.

AIMS: We investigated whether exercise training could promote angiogenesis and improve blood perfusion and left ventricular (LV) remodelling of the post-myocardial infarction (MI) failing heart. We also explored the contribution of ameliorated beta-adrenergic receptor signalling and function on the overall improvement of cardiac contractility reserve induced by exercise. METHODS AND RESULTS: Adult Wistar male rats were randomly assigned to one of four experimental groups. Sham-operated and post-MI heart failure (HF) rats were housed under sedentary conditions or assigned to 10-weeks of a treadmill exercise protocol. At 4 weeks after MI, sedentary HF rats showed LV eccentric hypertrophy, marked increase of LV diameters associated with severely impaired fractional shortening (14 +/- 5%), increased LV end diastolic pressure (20.9 +/- 2.6 mmHg), and pulmonary congestion. In addition, cardiac contractile responses to adrenergic stimulation were significantly blunted. In trained HF rats, exercise was able to (i) reactivate the cardiac vascular endothelial growth factor pathway with a concurrent enhancement of myocardial angiogenesis, (ii) significantly increase myocardial perfusion and coronary reserve, (iii) reduce cardiac diameters, and (iv) improve LV contractility in response to adrenergic stimulation. This latter finding was also associated with a significant improvement of cardiac beta-adrenergic receptor downregulation and desensitization. CONCLUSIONS: Our data indicate that exercise favourably affects angiogenesis and improves LV remodelling and contractility reserve in a rat model of severe chronic HF.

Prior exercise improves age-dependent vascular endothelial growth factor downregulation and angiogenesis responses to hind-limb ischemia in old rats.

Downregulation of hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) are shown to be involved in age-dependent impairment of angiogenesis. In this study, we explore whether prior exercise is able to affect these molecular patterns favorably and to enhance neoangiogenesis in old Wistar rats with hind-limb ischemia. At day 7 after surgery, HIF-1alpha and VEGF expression increased in the ischemic muscle of trained animals. Exercise increased capillary density and limb perfusion as revealed by histologic, angiographic, and dyed bead techniques. Furthermore, exercise capacity and limb trophism have significantly improved in trained aged rats. In these animals, the reduction of VEGF serum levels has reflected the comprehensive improvement in local ischemia evoked by exercise. In conclusion, prior exercise represents a valid tool to counteract age-related molecular alterations resulting in impaired angiogenesis in response to ischemia.

Ischemic neoangiogenesis enhanced by beta2-adrenergic receptor overexpression: a novel role for the endothelial adrenergic system.

Beta2-adrenergic receptors (beta2ARs) are widely expressed, although their physiological relevance in many tissues is not yet fully understood. In vascular endothelial cells, they regulate NO release and vessel tone. Here we provide novel evidence that beta2ARs can regulate neoangiogenesis in response to chronic ischemia. We used in vivo adenoviral-mediated gene transfer of the human beta2AR to the endothelium of the rat femoral artery and increased beta2AR signaling resulting in ameliorated angiographic blood flow and hindlimb perfusion after chronic ischemia. Histological analysis confirmed that beta2AR overexpression also produced benefits on capillary density. The same maneuver partially rescued impaired angiogenesis in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), whereas gene delivery of the G-protein-coupling defective mutant Ile164 beta2AR failed to provide ameliorations. Stimulation of endogenous and overexpressed beta2AR on endothelial cells in vitro was found to regulate cell number by inducing proliferation and [3H]-thymidine incorporation through means of extracellular receptor-activated kinase and vascular endothelial growth factor. The beta2AR also has novel effects on endothelial cell number through stimulation of proapoptosis and antiapoptosis pathways involving p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and PI3-kinase/Akt activation. Therefore, beta2ARs play a critical role in endothelial cell proliferation and function including revascularization, suggesting a novel and physiologically relevant role in neoangiogenesis in response to ischemia.