Cranial and postcranial anatomy of a juvenile baurusuchid (Notosuchia, Crocodylomorpha) and the taxonomical implications of ontogeny.

Baurusuchidae comprises a clade of top-tier terrestrial predators and are among the most abundant crocodyliforms found in the Adamantina Formation, Bauru Basin, Brazil (Campanian-Maastrichtian). Here, we provide a detailed description of the cranial and postcranial osteology and myology of the most complete juvenile baurusuchid found to date. Although the preservation of juvenile individuals is somewhat rare, previously reported occurrences of baurusuchid egg clutches, a yearling individual, and larger, but skeletally immature specimens, comprise a unique opportunity to track anatomical changes throughout their ontogenetic series. Its cranial anatomy was resolved with the aid of a three-dimensional model generated by the acquisition of computed tomography data, and its inferred adductor mandibular musculature was compared to that of mature specimens in order to assess possible ontogenetic shifts. A subsequent phylogenetic analysis included the scoring of Gondwanasuchus scabrosus, the smallest baurusuchid species known to date, to evaluate its phylogenetic relations relative to a known juvenile. We find considerable differences between juveniles and adults concerning skull ornamentation and muscle development, which might indicate ontogenetic niche partitioning, and also anatomical and phylogenetic evidence that G. scabrosus corresponds to a young semaphoront lacking mature cranial features.

On the dentition, tooth replacement, and taxonomic status of Charruodon tetracuspidatus Abdala & Ribeiro, 2000: A bizarre cynodont from the middle upper Triassic of southern Brazil.

Among the living tetrapods, mammals present a unique tooth replacement pattern, diphyodonty. Therefore, studying the dentition of mammalian ancestors is relevant to a better understanding of how this remarkable feature evolved. However, little is known about the postcanine tooth replacement pattern among Triassic cynodonts. Here, we applied the nondestructive method of microcomputed tomography (microCT) to analyze the dentition of the enigmatic Upper Triassic sectorial-toothed cynodont Charruodon tetracuspidatus (MCP 3934 PV, holotype) from the Candelaria Sequence, Santa Maria Supersequence, Brazil. The microCT-scan data allowed visualization of the replacement dentition and roots of the functional teeth, which provided information to inform interpretations of the ontogenetic stage and taxonomy of the species. A combination of dental and mandibular traits, as well as the small size of the specimen MCP 3934 PV, suggest an early ontogenetic stage. Additionally, the specimen could potentially be an ontogenetically immature form of another taxon, or a yet unknown species of probainognathian cynodont. Therefore, Charruodon tetracuspidatus is here designated as a nomen dubium, given the challenges of maintaining the species as valid.

Paleoneurology of Baurusuchus (Crocodyliformes: Baurusuchidae), ontogenetic variation, brain size, and sensorial implications.

Knowledge on crocodyliform paleoneurology has significantly improved with development of computed tomography. However, studies so far have been able to reconstruct brain endocasts based only on single specimens for each taxon. Here for the first time, we reconstructed brain endocasts for multiple fossil specimens of the same crocodyliform taxon (Baurusuchus), consisting of complete skulls of two medium sized specimens, one large adult, and a late juvenile. In addition, we were able to reconstruct the inner ear anatomy of a fragmentary skull using microtomography. We present estimates of brain size using simple models, based on modern Crocodylia, able to adapt brain to endocranial cavity ratios to expected ontogenetic variation instead of using fixed ratios. We also analyzed relative brain sizes, olfactory ratios, facial sensation, alert head posture, best hearing frequencies, and hearing range. The calculated endocranial volumes showed that they can be greatly altered by taphonomic processes, altering both total and partial endocranial volumes. Reconstructed endocasts are compatible with different degrees of occupation along the endocranial cavity and some of their characteristics might be useful as phylogenetic characters. The relative brain size of Baurusuchus seems to be small in comparison to modern crocodilians. Sensorial abilities were somewhat similar to modern crocodilians and hearing ranges and best mean frequencies remarkably similar to modern taxa, whereas olfactory ratio values are a little higher. Differing from its modern relatives, Baurusuchus hypothesized alert head posture is compatible with a terrestrial habit.

Development and evolution of the notarium in Pterosauria.

The notarium is the structure formed by fusion of the dorsal vertebrae which occurred independently in pterosaurs and birds. This ankylosis usually involves two to six elements and in many cases, also includes the last cervical vertebra. Fusion can occur in different degrees, uniting the vertebral centra, the neural spines, the transverse processes, the ventral processes, or a combination of these sites. A detailed assessment of the fusion process of pterosaur dorsal vertebrae is still lacking. Here we identify the fusion sequence of pterosaur notarial elements, demonstrating the order of ossification in vertebral bodies and neural spines based on fossils and extant birds. In both Pterosauria and Aves, the notarium generally develops in a antero-posterior direction, but the actual order of each fusion locus may present slight variations. Based on our data, we were able to identify seven developmental stages in the notarium formation, with broad implications for the prediction of ontogenetic stages for the Pterosauria. In addition, we report the occurrence of a notarium in Ardeadactylus longicollum (Kimmeridgian, Southern Germany), the oldest occurrence of this structure in pterosaurs.

Revision of the Late Jurassic teleosaurid genus Machimosaurus (Crocodylomorpha, Thalattosuchia).

Machimosaurus was a large-bodied genus of teleosaurid crocodylomorph, considered to have been durophagous/chelonivorous, and which frequented coastal marine/estuarine ecosystems during the Late Jurassic. Here, we revise the genus based on previously described specimens and revise the species within this genus. We conclude that there were three European Machimosaurus species and another taxon in Ethiopia. This conclusion is based on numerous lines of evidence: craniomandibular, dental and postcranial morphologies; differences in estimated total body length; geological age; geographical distribution; and hypothetical lifestyle. We re-diagnose the type species Machimosaurus hugii and limit referred specimens to only those from Upper Kimmeridgian-Lower Tithonian of Switzerland, Portugal and Spain. We also re-diagnose Machimosaurus mosae, demonstrate that it is an available name and restrict the species to the uppermost Kimmeridgian-lowermost Tithonian of northeastern France. We re-diagnose and validate the species Machimosaurus nowackianus from Harrar, Ethiopia. Finally, we establish a new species, Machimosaurus buffetauti, for the Lower Kimmeridgian specimens of France and Germany (and possibly England and Poland). We hypothesize that Machimosaurus may have been analogous to the Pliocene-Holocene genus Crocodylus in having one large-bodied taxon suited to traversing marine barriers and additional, geographically limited taxa across its range.

The cranial osteology and feeding ecology of the metriorhynchid crocodylomorph genera Dakosaurus and Plesiosuchus from the late Jurassic of Europe.

BACKGROUND: Dakosaurus and Plesiosuchus are characteristic genera of aquatic, large-bodied, macrophagous metriorhynchid crocodylomorphs. Recent studies show that these genera were apex predators in marine ecosystems during the latter part of the Late Jurassic, with robust skulls and strong bite forces optimized for feeding on large prey. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Here we present comprehensive osteological descriptions and systematic revisions of the type species of both genera, and in doing so we resurrect the genus Plesiosuchus for the species Dakosaurus manselii. Both species are diagnosed with numerous autapomorphies. Dakosaurus maximus has premaxillary 'lateral plates'; strongly ornamented maxillae; macroziphodont dentition; tightly fitting tooth-to-tooth occlusion; and extensive macrowear on the mesial and distal margins. Plesiosuchus manselii is distinct in having: non-amblygnathous rostrum; long mandibular symphysis; microziphodont teeth; tooth-crown apices that lack spalled surfaces or breaks; and no evidence for occlusal wear facets. Our phylogenetic analysis finds Dakosaurus maximus to be the sister taxon of the South American Dakosaurus andiniensis, and Plesiosuchus manselii in a polytomy at the base of Geosaurini (the subclade of macrophagous metriorhynchids that includes Dakosaurus, Geosaurus and Torvoneustes). CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The sympatry of Dakosaurus and Plesiosuchus is curiously similar to North Atlantic killer whales, which have one larger 'type' that lacks tooth-crown breakage being sympatric with a smaller 'type' that has extensive crown breakage. Assuming this morphofunctional complex is indicative of diet, then Plesiosuchus would be a specialist feeding on other marine reptiles while Dakosaurus would be a generalist and possible suction-feeder. This hypothesis is supported by Plesiosuchus manselii having a very large optimum gape (gape at which multiple teeth come into contact with a prey-item), while Dakosaurus maximus possesses craniomandibular characteristics observed in extant suction-feeding odontocetes: shortened tooth-row, amblygnathous rostrum and a very short mandibular symphysis. We hypothesise that trophic specialisation enabled these two large-bodied species to coexist in the same ecosystem.

Tooth-on-tooth interlocking occlusion suggests macrophagy in the mesozoic marine crocodylomorph dakosaurus.

Metriorhynchidae was a peculiar but long-lived group of marine Mesozoic crocodylomorphs adapted to a pelagic lifestyle. Recent discoveries show that metriorhynchids evolved a wide range of craniodental morphotypes and inferred feeding strategies. One genus, Dakosaurus, is arguably the most aberrant marine crocodylomorph due to its large, robust, ziphodont teeth; very low tooth count; and brevirostrine/oreinirostral snout. We here report an additional unusual feature of Dakosaurus that is unique among marine crocodylomorphs: tightly fitting tooth-to-tooth occlusion, whose inference is supported by reception pits along the upper and lower tooth rows, indicative of vertically orientated crowns that were in close contact during occlusion, and three distinct types of dental wear. These include irregular spalled surfaces near the apex (probably caused by tooth-food contact), semi-circular wear near the base, and elongate surfaces extending along the mesial and distal margins of the teeth, obliterating the carinae (including the denticles). Scanning electron micrographs show that these latter surfaces are marked by parallel apicobasal striations, which in extant mammals reflect tooth-tooth contact. As such, we interpret the carinal wear facets in Dakosaurus as being formed by repeated tooth-tooth contact between the mesial and distal margins of the teeth of the upper and lower jaw. We posit that this increased the available shearing surface on their high crowns. Together, these wear patterns suggest that occlusion in Dakosaurus was specialized for cutting large and abrasive prey items into portions small enough to swallow, making it a prime example of an aquatic reptile with macrophagous feeding habits.