Glycomimetics and Glycoconjugates in Drug Discovery.

This Special Issue of Pharmaceuticals presents one review and six original articles that are demonstrative of the importance of glycomimetics and glycoconjugates as privileged groups of carbohydrate-based molecules in the search for and development of bioactive substances for therapeutic/pharmaceutical purposes [...].

Guidelines for O-Glycoside Formation from First Principles.

With a view to reducing the notorious complexity and irreproducibility of glycosylation reactions, 12 guidelines for the choice of concentration, temperature, and counterions are adumbrated.

Synthesis of an Aminooxy Derivative of the GM3 Antigen and Its Application in Oxime Ligation.

The anomeric aminooxy GM3 trisaccharide cancer antigen (Neu5Acα2,3Galß1,4Glcß-ONH2) has been chemically synthesized using a linear glycosylation approach. The key step involves a highly α(2,3)-stereoselective sialylation to a galactose acceptor. The Neu5Acα2,3Gal intermediate was functionalized as a donor for a [2 + 1] glycosylation, including a glucose acceptor that featured an O-succinimidyl group on the reducing end as an aminooxy precursor. The fully deprotected anomeric aminooxy GM3 trisaccharide was then conjugated to the immunologically relevant zwitterionic polysaccharide PS A1 via an oxime link.

Enhanced Immune Response Against the Thomsen-Friedenreich Tumor Antigen Using a Bivalent Entirely Carbohydrate Conjugate.

The Thomsen-Friedenreich (TF) antigen is a key target for the development of anticancer vaccines, and this ongoing challenge remains relevant due to the poor immunogenicity of the TF antigen. To overcome this challenge, we adopted a bivalent conjugate design which introduced both the TF antigen and the Thomsen-nouveau (Tn) antigen onto the immunologically relevant polysaccharide A1 (PS A1). The immunological results in C57BL/6 mice revealed that the bivalent, Tn-TF-PS A1 conjugate increased the immune response towards the TF antigen as compared to the monovalent TF-PS A1. This phenomenon was first observed with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) where the bivalent conjugate generated high titers of IgG antibodies where the monovalent conjugate generated an exclusive IgM response. Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis also revealed increased binding events to the tumor cell lines MCF-7 and OVCAR-5, which are consistent with the enhanced tumor cell lysis observed in a complement dependent cytotoxicity (CDC) assay. The cytokine profile generated by the bivalent construct revealed increased pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-17 and IFN-γ. This increase in cytokine concentration was matched with an increase in cytokine producing cells as observed by ELISpot. We hypothesized the mechanisms for this phenomenon to involve the macrophage galactose N-acetylgalactosamine specific lectin 2 (MGL2). This hypothesis was supported by using biotinylated probes and recombinant MGL2 to measure carbohydrate-protein interactions.

Chemical synthesis and immunological evaluation of entirely carbohydrate conjugate Globo H-PS A1.

An anticancer, entirely carbohydrate conjugate, Globo H-polysaccharide A1 (Globo H-PS A1), was chemically prepared and immunologically evaluated in C57BL/6 mice. Tumor associated carbohydrate antigen Globo H hexasaccharide was synthesized in an overall 7.8% yield employing a convergent [3 + 3] strategy that revealed an anomeric aminooxy group used for conjugation to oxidized PS A1 via an oxime linkage. Globo H-PS A1, formulated with adjuvants monophosphoryl lipid A and TiterMax® Gold. After immunization an antigen specific immune response was observed in ELISA with anti-Globo H IgG/IgM antibodies. Specificity of the corresponding antibodies was determined by FACS showing cell surface binding to Globo H-positive cancer cell lines MCF-7 and OVCAR-5. The anti-Globo H antibodies also exhibited complement-dependent cellular cytotoxicity against MCF-7 and OVCAR-5 cells.

Developments in Carbohydrate-Based Cancer Therapeutics.

Cancer cells of diverse origins express extracellular tumor-specific carbohydrate antigens (TACAs) because of aberrant glycosylation. Overexpressed TACAs on the surface of tumor cells are considered biomarkers for cancer detection and have always been prioritized for the development of novel carbohydrate-based anti-cancer vaccines. In recent years, progress has been made in developing synthetic, carbohydrate-based antitumor vaccines to improve immune responses associated with targeting these specific antigens. Tumor cells also exhaust more energy for proliferation than normal cells, by consuming excessive amounts of glucose via overexpressed sugar binding or transporting receptors located in the cellular membrane. Furthermore, inspired by the Warburg effect, glycoconjugation strategies of anticancer drugs have gained considerable attention from the scientific community. This review highlights a small cohort of recent efforts which have been made in carbohydrate-based cancer treatments, including vaccine design and the development of glycoconjugate prodrugs, glycosidase inhibiting iminosugars, and early cancer diagnosis.

Total Synthesis of Zwitterionic Tetrasaccharide Repeating Unit from Bacteroides fragilis ATCC 25285/NCTC 9343 Capsular Polysaccharide PS A1 with Alternating Charges on Adjacent Monosaccharides.

The tetrasaccharide repeating unit of zwitterionic polysaccharide A1 (PS A1) from Bacteroides fragilis ATCC 25285/NCTC 9343 has been synthesized using a linear glycosylation approach. One key step includes an α(1,4)-stereoselective [2 + 1] glycosylation of a 2,4,6-trideoxy-2-acetamido-4-amino-d-Gal p (AAT) donor with a poorly reactive axial C4-OH disaccharide acceptor. Mild acid-mediated deacetylation and a challenging [3 + 1] glycosylation are also highlighted. The strategy is inclusive of a single-pot, three-step deprotection affording PS A1 with alternating charges on adjacent monosaccharide units.

Production of a mouse monoclonal IgM antibody that targets the carbohydrate Thomsen-nouveau cancer antigen resulting in in vivo and in vitro tumor killing.

The construction of a tumor-associated carbohydrate antigen-zwitterionic polysaccharide conjugate, Thomsen-nouveau-polysaccharide A1 (Tn-PS A1, where Tn = D-GalpNAc), has led to the development of a carbohydrate binding monoclonal antibody named Kt-IgM-8. Kt-IgM-8 was produced via hybridoma from Tn-PS A1 hyperimmunized Jackson Laboratory C57BL/6 mice, splenocytes and the murine myeloma cell line Sp2/0Ag14 with subsequent cloning on methyl cellulose semi-solid media. This in-house generated monoclonal antibody negates binding influenced from peptides, proteins, and lipids and preferentially binds monovalent Tn antigen as noted by ELISA, FACS, and glycan array technologies. Kt-IgM-8 demonstrated in vitro and in vivo tumor killing against the Michigan Cancer Foundation breast cell line 7 (MCF-7). In vitro tumor killing was observed using an LDH assay that measured antibody-induced complement-dependent cytotoxicity and these results were validated in an in vivo passive immunotherapy approach using an MCF-7 cell line-derived xenograft model. Kt-IgM-8 is effective in killing tumor cells at 30% cytotoxicity, and furthermore, it demonstrated approximately 40% reduction in tumor growth in the MCF-7 model.

Methyl isocyanide as a convertible functional group for the synthesis of spirocyclic oxindole γ-lactams via post-Ugi-4CR/transamidation/cyclization in a one-pot, three-step sequence.

The synthesis of spiro[indoline-3,2'-pyrrole]-2,5'(1'H)-diones and spiro[indoline-3,2'-pyrrolidine]-2,5'-diones, via a post-Ugi-domino transamidation/cyclization sequential process, has been achieved in three sequential steps utilizing a one-pot reaction protocol. The variation in carboxylic acid substrates allows for the generation of new chiral racemic quaternary carbon centers under basic conditions providing molecular diversity and a small library of spirocyclic oxindoles.

Synthesis of substrate analogues as potential inhibitors for Mycobacterium tuberculosis enzyme MshC.

Mycothiol cysteine ligase (MshC) is a key enzyme in the mycothiol (MSH) biosynthesis and a promising target for developing new anti-mycobacterial compounds. Herein, we report on the synthesis of substrate analogues, as potential inhibitors, for the MshC enzyme. The target molecules were synthesized employing a Schmidt glycosylation strategy using an enantiomerically pure inositol acceptor and 2-deoxy trichloroacetimidate glycosyl donors with glycosylation yields greater than 70% and overall yields >5%. The inositol acceptor was obtained via chiral resolution of (±)-myo-inositol.

Sialyl-Tn Polysaccharide A1 as an Entirely Carbohydrate Immunogen: Synthesis and Immunological Evaluation.

Sialyl Thomsen-nouveau (STn) is a tumor-associated carbohydrate antigen (TACA) that is overexpressed in a variety of carcinomas such as breast, ovarian, and colon cancer. In normal tissue, STn is not detectable, which is critical for opportunities in developing cancer immunotherapies. A novel, entirely carbohydrate, semisynthetic STn-polysaccharide (PS) A1 conjugate was prepared and evaluated in C57BL/6 mice. STn-PS A1 was combined with commercially available monophosphoryl lipid A-based adjuvant, and after immunization, ELISA indicated a strong immune response for inducing anti-STn IgM/IgG antibodies. The specificity of these antibodies was concomitantly investigated using FACS analysis, and the results indicated excellent cell surface binding events to STn-expressing cancer cell lines MCF-7 and OVCAR-5. An INF-γ ELISpot assay was conducted to further confirm a robust cellular immunity invoked by STn-PS A1. Most importantly, the raised antibodies conferred complement-dependent cellular cytotoxicity against MCF-7 and OVCAR-5 cells.

Synthesis of an Aminooxy Derivative of the Tetrasaccharide Repeating Unit of Streptococcus dysgalactiae 2023 Polysaccharide for a PS A1 Conjugate Vaccine.

A highly efficient and stereocontrolled synthesis of an aminooxy derivative of the tetrasaccharide repeating unit of a rhamnose-rich polysaccharide isolated from the cell envelop of bovine mastitis Streptococcus dysgalactiae 2023 is reported for the first time. The synthesis was accomplished utilizing a stereoselective and convergent [2 + 2] glycosylation strategy inclusive of a disaccharide Schmidt donor and an inclusive rhamnose disaccharide acceptor. The synthetic aminooxy tetrasaccharide was conjugated to T-cell stimulating immunogen PS A1 from Bacteroides fragilis ATCC 25285/NCTC 9343 via a physiologically stable oxime linkage to furnish the first semisynthetic bacterial-based immunogen construct targeting S. dysgalactiae 2023. The synthetic tetrasaccharide was assembled in 19 steps with a ∼5.0% overall yield.

Entirely Carbohydrate-Based Vaccines: An Emerging Field for Specific and Selective Immune Responses.

Carbohydrates are regarded as promising targets for vaccine development against infectious disease because cell surface glycans on many infectious agents are attributed to playing an important role in pathogenesis. In addition, oncogenic transformation of normal cells, in many cases, is associated with aberrant glycosylation of the cell surface glycan generating tumor associated carbohydrate antigens (TACAs). Technological advances in glycobiology have added a new dimension to immunotherapy when considering carbohydrates as key targets in developing safe and effective vaccines to combat cancer, bacterial infections, viral infections, etc. Many consider effective vaccines induce T-cell dependent immunity with satisfactory levels of immunological memory that preclude recurrence. Unfortunately, carbohydrates alone are poorly immunogenic as they do not bind strongly to the MHCII complex and thus fail to elicit T-cell immunity. To increase immunogenicity, carbohydrates have been conjugated to carrier proteins, which sometimes can impede carbohydrate specific immunity as peptide-based immune responses can negate antibodies directed at the targeted carbohydrate antigens. To overcome many challenges in using carbohydrate-based vaccine design and development approaches targeting cancer and other diseases, zwitterionic polysaccharides (ZPSs), isolated from the capsule of commensal anaerobic bacteria, will be discussed as promising carriers of carbohydrate antigens to achieve desired immunological responses.

Immunological evaluation of the entirely carbohydrate-based Thomsen-Friedenreich - PS B conjugate.

PS B, a naturally occurring CD4(+) T-cell simulating zwitterionic polysaccharide from Bacteroides fragilis ATCC 25285/NCTC 9343, was conjugated with aminooxy Thomsen Friedenreich (TF or T) [α-d-Gal-(1,3)-ß-d-GalNAc-ONH2] tumor antigen. Immunization in Jax C57BL/6, followed by ELISA revealed IgM and IgG antibody TF specificity. FACS data noted preferential binding to TF-laced MCF-7 cells but not to HCT-116 cells.

Stereoselective Synthesis of Natural and Non-natural Thomsen-nouveau Antigens and Hydrazide Derivatives.

A selective glycosylation strategy enabling access to all stereochemical combinations of tumor associated Thomsen-nouveau (Tn) antigen, D-GalNAc-O-Ser/Thr, has been developed. The key component for selectivity is the phthalimide-protected D- or L-amino acid acceptors which allow access to α- or ß-anomers in excellent yields (72-96%) and selectivity (∼100%) when appropriate C-2 substitution is installed. The glycoamino acid intermediates were divergently converted to Tn-based carboxylates or to hydrazides by tandem Pd-C debenzylation followed by treatment with hydrazine hydrate or hydrazine hydrate treatment alone.

Synthesis of an Aminooxy Derivative of the Trisaccharide Globotriose Gb3.

The synthesis of α-aminooxy trisaccharide moiety [α-d-Gal-(1,4)-ß-d-Gal-(1,4)-ß-d-Glc-α-aminooxy], related to the cell surface globotriaosylceramide (Gb3) receptor of the B subunit of the AB5 Shiga toxin of Shigella dysenteriae, has been synthesized for the first time in 11 steps with a 15% overall isolated yield. A highlight of this work entails utilizing chemically compatible synthetic transformations, including those related to glycosylation, incorporative of the succinimidyl moiety as a precursor to the aminooxy Gb3 derivative. The fully deprotected trisaccharide aminooxy compound was reacted with a carbonyl compound leading to oxime formation in quantitative yield underscoring the importance for future glyco-conjugations.

Elucidating Structural Features of an Entirely Carbohydrate Cancer Vaccine Construct Employing Circular Dichroism and Fluorescent Labeling.

The zwitterionic polysaccharide PS A1 from anaerobe Bacteroides fragilis ATCC 25285/NCTC 9343 is known to elicit a T-cell-dependent, major histocompatibility complex class II (MHCII) immune response through a correspondingly similar protein-antigen-based mechanism/pathway. The biological activity of PS A1 is known to arise from alternating charged motifs on adjacent monosaccharides comprising a tetrameric repeating oligomeric unit creating an alpha-helical secondary structure. However, we have learned that this alpha-helical structural characteristic may not play a role in immune activation. Paradoxically, our current knowledge of structure - activity relationships (SARs) with electrostatically charged polysaccharides has become more clearly defined, yet a lack of tools/probes for measuring dynamic structural changes hinders progress in carbohydrate-based vaccine development. Site- and region-specific structural modifications of PS A1, followed by conjugation with a known carbohydrate cancer antigen, the Thomsen-nouveau (Tn = alpha-D-GalNAc-OSer/Thr) antigen, does not alter antibody isotype switching ability and leads to specific IgG3 antibodies in C57BL/6 mice. Circular dichroism (CD) and studies using fluorescently labeled PS A1, described herein, reveal information pertaining to structure - activity relationships and the nature of Tn conjugation to chemically modified PS A1. The CD spectra of a Tn-PS A1 construct at 8.5 ≥ pH ≤ 3.5 illustrates complete loss of alpha-helical character while spectra obtained in the 3.6 ≤ pH ≥ 8.4 range denotes minimal alpha-helicity in comparison to naturally occurring PS A1. Temperatures exceeding 60 °C reveal complete loss of helical character. Two methods for Alexa Fluor488® fluorescent labeling studies of chemically oxidized PS A1 have given rise to percent conjugation values (% loading) calculated to be on average 35 Tn molecules bound. Combined, our results argue that altering the structure of PS A1, without chemically modifying the electrostatic charge character, does not alter immune response/recognition in mice. These findings have important implications for the design of entirely carbohydrate-based vaccine constructs.

Disruption of heme-peptide covalent cross-linking in mammalian peroxidases by hypochlorous acid.

Myeloperoxidase (MPO), lactoperoxidase (LPO) and eosinophil peroxidase (EPO) play a central role in oxidative damage in inflammatory disorders by utilizing hydrogen peroxide and halides/pseudo halides to generate the corresponding hypohalous acid. The catalytic sites of these enzymes contain a covalently modified heme group, which is tethered to the polypeptide chain at two ester linkages via the methyl group (MPO, EPO and LPO) and one sulfonium bond via the vinyl group (MPO only). Covalent cross-linking of the catalytic site heme to the polypeptide chain in peroxidases is thought to play a protective role, since it renders the heme moiety less susceptible to the oxidants generated by these enzymes. Mass-spectrometric analysis revealed the following possible pathways by which hypochlorous acid (HOCl) disrupts the heme-protein cross-linking: (1) the methyl-ester bond is cleaved to form an alcohol; (2) the alcohol group undergoes an oxygen elimination reaction via the formation of an aldehyde intermediate or undergoes a demethylation reaction to lose the terminal CH2 group; and (3) the oxidative cleavage of the vinyl-sulfonium linkage. Once the heme moiety is released it undergoes cleavage at the carbon-methyne bridge either along the δ-ß or a α-γ axis to form different pyrrole derivatives. These results indicate that covalent cross-linking is not enough to protect the enzymes from HOCl mediated heme destruction and free iron release. Thus, the interactions of mammalian peroxidases with HOCl modulates their activity and sets a stage for initiation of the Fenton reaction, further perpetuating oxidative damage at sites of inflammation.

A one-pot multicomponent coupling/cyclization for natural product herbicide (±)-thaxtomin A.

Herbicide (±)-thaxtomin A has been synthesized in a one-pot process with a 32% isolated yield. A multicomponent coupling reaction was utilized to prepare in situ a dipeptide precursor which then sequentially underwent an alkaline mediated keto-amide cyclization to provide the target molecule. Adjustment of diastereoselectivity was achieved using microwave-induced irradiation. The approach incorporates atom economy and reaction efficiency and allows for facile library development.