Proliferation and Morphogenesis of the Endoplasmic Reticulum Driven by the Membrane Domain of 3-Hydroxy-3-Methylglutaryl Coenzyme A Reductase in Plant Cells.

The enzyme 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGR) has a key regulatory role in the mevalonate pathway for isoprenoid biosynthesis and is composed of an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-anchoring membrane domain with low sequence similarity among eukaryotic kingdoms and a conserved cytosolic catalytic domain. Organized smooth endoplasmic reticulum (OSER) structures are common formations of hypertrophied tightly packed ER membranes devoted to specific biosynthetic and secretory functions, the biogenesis of which remains largely unexplored. We show that the membrane domain of plant HMGR suffices to trigger ER proliferation and OSER biogenesis. The proliferating membranes become highly enriched in HMGR protein, but they do not accumulate sterols, indicating a morphogenetic rather than a metabolic role for HMGR. The N-terminal MDVRRRPP motif present in most plant HMGR isoforms is not required for retention in the ER, which was previously proposed, but functions as an ER morphogenic signal. Plant OSER structures are morphologically similar to those of animal cells, emerge from tripartite ER junctions, and mainly build up beside the nuclear envelope, indicating conserved OSER biogenesis in high eukaryotes. Factors other than the OSER-inducing HMGR construct mediate the tight apposition of the proliferating membranes, implying separate ER proliferation and membrane association steps. Overexpression of the membrane domain of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) HMGR leads to ER hypertrophy in every tested cell type and plant species, whereas the knockout of the HMG1 gene from Arabidopsis, encoding its major HMGR isoform, causes ER aggregation at the nuclear envelope. Our results show that the membrane domain of HMGR contributes to ER morphogenesis in plant cells.

Spontaneous symbiotic reprogramming of plant roots triggered by receptor-like kinases.

Symbiosis Receptor-like Kinase (SYMRK) is indispensable for the development of phosphate-acquiring arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) as well as nitrogen-fixing root nodule symbiosis, but the mechanisms that discriminate between the two distinct symbiotic developmental fates have been enigmatic. In this study, we show that upon ectopic expression, the receptor-like kinase genes Nod Factor Receptor 1 (NFR1), NFR5, and SYMRK initiate spontaneous nodule organogenesis and nodulation-related gene expression in the absence of rhizobia. Furthermore, overexpressed NFR1 or NFR5 associated with endogenous SYMRK in roots of the legume Lotus japonicus. Epistasis tests revealed that the dominant active SYMRK allele initiates signalling independently of either the NFR1 or NFR5 gene and upstream of a set of genes required for the generation or decoding of calcium-spiking in both symbioses. Only SYMRK but not NFR overexpression triggered the expression of AM-related genes, indicating that the receptors play a key role in the decision between AM- or root nodule symbiosis-development.

Like all plants, crop plants need nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphate to grow. Often these essential elements are in short supply, and so millions of tons of fertiliser are applied to agricultural land each year to maintain crop yields. Another way for plants to gain access to scarce nutrients is to form symbiotic relationships with microorganisms that live in the soil. Plants pass on carbon-containing compounds­such as sugars­to the microbes and, in return, certain fungi provide minerals­such as phosphates­to the plants. Some plants called legumes (such as peas, beans, and clovers) can also form relationships with bacteria that convert nitrogen from the air into ammonia, which the plants then use to make molecules such as DNA and proteins. To establish these symbiotic relationships with plants, nitrogen-fixing bacteria release chemical signals that are recognized via receptor proteins, called NFR1 and NFR5, found on the surface of the plant root cells. These signals trigger a cascade of events that ultimately lead to the plant forming an organ called 'root nodule' to house and nourish the nitrogen-fixing bacteria. A similar signalling mechanism is thought to take place during the establishment of symbiotic relationships between plants and certain soil fungi. A plant protein called Symbiosis Receptor-like Kinase (or SYMRK for short) that is also located on the root cell surface is required for both bacteria­plant and fungi­plant associations to occur. However, the exact role of this protein in these processes was unclear. Ried et al. have now investigated this by taking advantage of a property of cell surface receptor proteins: if some of these proteins are made in excessive amounts they activate their signalling cascades even when the initial signal is not present. Ried et al. engineered plants called Lotus japonicus to produce high levels of SYMRK, NFR1, or NFR5. Each of these changes was sufficient to trigger the plants to develop root nodules in the absence of microbes. Genes associated with the activation of the signalling cascade involved the formation of root nodules were also switched on when each of the three proteins was produced in large amounts. In contrast, only an excess of SYMRK could activate genes related to fungi­plant associations. Ried et al. also found that, while SYMRK can function in the absence of the NFRs, NFR1 and NFR5 need each other to function. These data suggest that the receptor proteins play a key role in the decision between the establishment of an association with a bacterium or a fungus. As an excess of symbiotic receptors caused plants to form symbiotic structures, Ried et al. propose that this strategy could be used to persuade plants that usually do not form symbioses with nitrogen-fixing bacteria to do so. If this is possible, it might lead us to engineer crop plants to form symbiotic interactions with nitrogen-fixing bacteria; this would help increase crop yields and enable crops to be grown in nitrogen-poor environments without the addition of extra fertiliser.

Knowing your friends and foes--plant receptor-like kinases as initiators of symbiosis or defence.

The decision between defence and symbiosis signalling in plants involves alternative and modular plasma membrane-localized receptor complexes. A critical step in their activation is ligand-induced homo- or hetero-oligomerization of leucine-rich repeat (LRR)- and/or lysin motif (LysM) receptor-like kinases (RLKs). In defence signalling, receptor complexes form upon binding of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), including the bacterial flagellin-derived peptide flg22, or chitin. Similar mechanisms are likely to operate during the perception of microbial symbiont-derived (lipo)-chitooligosaccharides. The structurally related chitin-oligomer ligands chitooctaose and chitotetraose trigger defence and symbiosis signalling, respectively, and their discrimination involves closely related, if not identical, LysM-RLKs. This illustrates the demand for and the challenges imposed on decision mechanisms that ensure appropriate signal initiation. Appropriate signalling critically depends on abundance and localization of RLKs at the cell surface. This is regulated by internalization, which also provides a mechanism for the removal of activated signalling RLKs. Abundance of the malectin-like domain (MLD)-LRR-RLK Symbiosis Receptor-like Kinase (SYMRK) is additionally controlled by cleavage of its modular ectodomain, which generates a truncated and rapidly degraded RLK fragment. This review explores LRR- and LysM-mediated signalling, the involvement of MLD-LRR-RLKs in symbiosis and defence, and the role of endocytosis in RLK function.

Cleavage of the SYMBIOSIS RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASE ectodomain promotes complex formation with Nod factor receptor 5.

Plants form root symbioses with fungi and bacteria to improve their nutrient supply. SYMBIOSIS RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASE (SYMRK) is required for phosphate-acquiring arbuscular mycorrhiza, as well as for the nitrogen-fixing root nodule symbiosis of legumes and actinorhizal plants, but its precise function was completely unclear. Here we show that the extracytoplasmic region of SYMRK, which comprises three leucine-rich repeats (LRRs) and a malectin-like domain (MLD) related to a carbohydrate-binding protein from Xenopus laevis, is cleaved to release the MLD in the absence of symbiotic stimulation. A conserved sequence motif--GDPC--that connects the MLD to the LRRs is required for MLD release. We discovered that Nod factor receptor 5 (NFR5) forms a complex with the SYMRK version that remains after MLD release (SYMRK-ΔMLD). SYMRK-ΔMLD outcompeted full-length SYMRK for NFR5 interaction, indicating that the MLD negatively interferes with complex formation. SYMRK-ΔMLD is present at lower amounts than MLD, suggesting rapid degradation after MLD release. A deletion of the entire extracytoplasmic region increased protein abundance, suggesting that the LRR region promotes degradation. Curiously, this deletion led to excessive infection thread formation, highlighting the importance of fine-tuned regulation of SYMRK by its ectodomain.

Receptor kinase signaling pathways in plant-microbe interactions.

Plant receptor-like kinases (RLKs) function in diverse signaling pathways, including the responses to microbial signals in symbiosis and defense. This versatility is achieved with a common overall structure: an extracytoplasmic domain (ectodomain) and an intracellular protein kinase domain involved in downstream signal transduction. Various surfaces of the leucine-rich repeat (LRR) ectodomain superstructure are utilized for interaction with the cognate ligand in both plant and animal receptors. RLKs with lysin-motif (LysM) ectodomains confer recognitional specificity toward N-acetylglucosamine-containing signaling molecules, such as chitin, peptidoglycan (PGN), and rhizobial nodulation factor (NF), that induce immune or symbiotic responses. Signaling downstream of RLKs does not follow a single pattern; instead, the detailed analysis of brassinosteroid (BR) signaling, innate immunity, and symbiosis revealed at least three largely nonoverlapping pathways. In this review, we focus on RLKs involved in plant-microbe interactions and contrast the signaling pathways leading to symbiosis and defense.

Lotus japonicus E3 ligase SEVEN IN ABSENTIA4 destabilizes the symbiosis receptor-like kinase SYMRK and negatively regulates rhizobial infection.

The Lotus japonicus SYMBIOSIS RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASE (SYMRK) is required for symbiotic signal transduction upon stimulation of root cells by microbial signaling molecules. Here, we identified members of the SEVEN IN ABSENTIA (SINA) E3 ubiquitin-ligase family as SYMRK interactors and confirmed their predicted ubiquitin-ligase activity. In Nicotiana benthamiana leaves, SYMRK-yellow fluorescent protein was localized at the plasma membrane, and interaction with SINAs, as determined by bimolecular fluorescence complementation, was observed in small punctae at the cytosolic interface of the plasma membrane. Moreover, fluorescence-tagged SINA4 partially colocalized with SYMRK and caused SYMRK relocalization as well as disappearance of SYMRK from the plasma membrane. Neither the localization nor the abundance of Nod-factor receptor1 was altered by the presence of SINA4. SINA4 was transcriptionally upregulated during root symbiosis, and rhizobia inoculated roots ectopically expressing SINA4 showed reduced SYMRK protein levels. In accordance with a negative regulatory role in symbiosis, infection thread development was impaired upon ectopic expression of SINA4. Our results implicate SINA4 E3 ubiquitin ligase in the turnover of SYMRK and provide a conceptual mechanism for its symbiosis-appropriate spatio-temporal containment.

Functional domain analysis of the Remorin protein LjSYMREM1 in Lotus japonicus.

In legumes rhizobial infection during root nodule symbiosis (RNS) is controlled by a conserved set of receptor proteins and downstream components. MtSYMREM1, a protein of the Remorin family in Medicago truncatula, was shown to interact with at least three receptor-like kinases (RLKs) that are essential for RNS. Remorins are comprised of a conserved C-terminal domain and a variable N-terminal region that defines the six different Remorin groups. While both N- and C-terminal regions of Remorins belonging to the same phylogenetic group are similar to each other throughout the plant kingdom, the N-terminal domains of legume-specific group 2 Remorins show exceptional high degrees of sequence divergence suggesting evolutionary specialization of this protein within this clade. We therefore identified and characterized the MtSYMREM1 ortholog from Lotus japonicus (LjSYMREM1), a model legume that forms determinate root nodules. Here, we resolved its spatio-temporal regulation and showed that over-expression of LjSYMREM1 increases nodulation on transgenic roots. Using a structure-function approach we show that protein interactions including Remorin oligomerization are mainly mediated and stabilized by the Remorin C-terminal region with its coiled-coil domain while the RLK kinase domains transiently interact in vivo and phosphorylate a residue in the N-terminal region of the LjSYMREM1 protein in vitro. These data provide novel insights into the mechanism of this putative molecular scaffold protein and underline its importance during rhizobial infection.

Modulation of plant HMG-CoA reductase by protein phosphatase 2A: positive and negative control at a key node of metabolism.

The enzyme HMG-CoA reductase (HMGR) has a key regulatory role in the mevalonate pathway for isoprenoid biosynthesis, critical not only for normal plant development, but also for the adaptation to demanding environmental conditions. Consistent with this notion, plant HMGR is modulated by many diverse endogenous signals and external stimuli. Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is involved in auxin, abscisic acid, ethylene and brassinosteroid signaling and now emerges as a positive and negative multilevel regulator of plant HMGR, both during normal growth and in response to a variety of stress conditions. The interaction with HMGR is mediated by B" regulatory subunits of PP2A, which are also calcium binding proteins. The new discoveries uncover the potential of PP2A to integrate developmental and calcium-mediated environmental signals in the control of plant HMGR.

Lotus japonicus symRK-14 uncouples the cortical and epidermal symbiotic program.

SYMRK is a leucine-rich-repeat (LRR)-receptor kinase that mediates intracellular symbioses of legumes with rhizobia and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. It participates in signalling events that lead to epidermal calcium spiking, an early cellular response that is typically considered as central for intracellular accommodation and nodule organogenesis. Here, we describe the Lotus japonicus symRK-14 mutation that alters a conserved GDPC amino-acid sequence in the SYMRK extracellular domain. Normal infection of the epidermis by fungal or bacterial symbionts was aborted in symRK-14. Likewise, epidermal responses of symRK-14 to bacterial signalling, including calcium spiking, NIN gene expression and infection thread formation, were significantly reduced. In contrast, no major negative effects on the formation of nodule primordia and cortical infection were detected. Cumulatively, our data show that the symRK-14 mutation uncouples the epidermal and cortical symbiotic program, while indicating that the SYMRK extracellular domain participates in transduction of non-equivalent signalling events. The GDPC sequence was found to be highly conserved in LRR-receptor kinases in legumes and non-legumes, including the evolutionarily distant bryophytes. Conservation of the GDPC sequence in nearly one-fourth of LRR-receptor-like kinases in the genome of Arabidopsis thaliana suggests, however, that this sequence might also play an important non-symbiotic function in this plant.

Multilevel control of Arabidopsis 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase by protein phosphatase 2A.

Plants synthesize a myriad of isoprenoid products that are required both for essential constitutive processes and for adaptive responses to the environment. The enzyme 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGR) catalyzes a key regulatory step of the mevalonate pathway for isoprenoid biosynthesis and is modulated by many endogenous and external stimuli. In spite of that, no protein factor interacting with and regulating plant HMGR in vivo has been described so far. Here, we report the identification of two B'' regulatory subunits of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), designated B''α and B''ß, that interact with HMGR1S and HMGR1L, the major isoforms of Arabidopsis thaliana HMGR. B''α and B''ß are Ca²âº binding proteins of the EF-hand type. We show that HMGR transcript, protein, and activity levels are modulated by PP2A in Arabidopsis. When seedlings are transferred to salt-containing medium, B''α and PP2A mediate the decrease and subsequent increase of HMGR activity, which results from a steady rise of HMGR1-encoding transcript levels and an initial sharper reduction of HMGR protein level. In unchallenged plants, PP2A is a posttranslational negative regulator of HMGR activity with the participation of B''ß. Our data indicate that PP2A exerts multilevel control on HMGR through the five-member B'' protein family during normal development and in response to a variety of stress conditions.

Autophosphorylation is essential for the in vivo function of the Lotus japonicus Nod factor receptor 1 and receptor-mediated signalling in cooperation with Nod factor receptor 5.

Soil-living rhizobia secrete lipochitin oligosaccharides known as Nod factors, which in Lotus japonicus are perceived by at least two Nod-factor receptors, NFR1 and NFR5. Despite progress in identifying molecular components critical for initial legume host recognition of the microsymbiont and cloning of downstream components, little is known about the activation and signalling mechanisms of the Nod-factor receptors themselves. Here we show that both receptor proteins localize to the plasma membrane, and present evidence for heterocomplex formation initiating downstream signalling. Expression of NFR1 and NFR5 in Nicotiana benthamiana and Allium ampeloprasum (leek) cells caused a rapid cell-death response. The signalling leading to cell death was abrogated using a kinase-inactive variant of NFR1. In these surviving cells, a clear interaction between NFR1 and NFR5 was detected in vivo through bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC). To analyse the inter- and intramolecular phosphorylation events of the kinase complex, the cytoplasmic part of NFR1 was assayed for in vitro kinase activity, and autophosphorylation on 24 amino acid residues, including three tyrosine residues, was found by mass spectrometry. Substitution of the phosphorylated amino acids of NFR1 identified a single phosphorylation site to be essential for NFR1 Nod-factor signalling in vivo and kinase activity in vitro. In contrast to NFR1, no in vitro kinase activity of the cytoplasmic domain of NFR5 was detected. This is further supported by the fact that a mutagenized NFR5 construct, substituting an amino acid essential for ATP binding, restored nodulation of nfr5 mutant roots.

Design of novel ligands of CDP-methylerythritol kinase by mimicking direct protein-protein and solvent-mediated interactions.

The methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway for the biosynthesis of the isoprenoid universal building blocks (isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP)) is present in most of human pathogens and is absent in animals, turning it into a promising therapeutic druggable pathway. Two different strategies, a pharmacophore-directed virtual screening and a protein-protein interaction (PPI)-mimicking cyclic peptide were used to search for compounds that bind to the PPI surface of the 4-(cytidine 5-diphospho)-2C-methyl-D-erythritol kinase (CMK), which catalyzes the fourth step of the MEP pathway. A significant part of the pharmacophore hypothesis used in this study was designed by mimicking water-mediated PPI relevant in the CMK homodimer complex stabilization. After database search and with the aid of docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, a 7H-furo[3,2-g]chromen-7-one derivative and a cyclic peptide were chosen as candidates to be ligands of CMK. Their binding affinities were measured using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) technology.