Differential Trafficking and Expression of PIR Proteins in Acute and Chronic Plasmodium Infections.

Plasmodium multigene families are thought to play important roles in the pathogenesis of malaria. Plasmodium interspersed repeat (pir) genes comprise the largest multigene family in many Plasmodium species. However, their expression pattern and localisation remain to be elucidated. Understanding protein subcellular localisation is fundamental to reveal the functional importance and cell-cell interactions of the PIR proteins. Here, we use the rodent malaria parasite, Plasmodium chabaudi chabaudi, as a model to investigate the localisation pattern of this gene family. We found that most PIR proteins are co-expressed in clusters during acute and chronic infection; members of the S7 clade are predominantly expressed during the acute-phase, whereas members of the L1 clade dominate the chronic-phase of infection. Using peptide antisera specific for S7 or L1 PIRS, we show that these PIRs have different localisations within the infected red blood cells. S7 PIRs are exported into the infected red blood cell cytoplasm where they are co-localised with parasite-induced host cell modifications termed Maurer's clefts, whereas L1 PIRs are localised on or close to the parasitophorous vacuolar membrane. This localisation pattern changes following mosquito transmission and during progression from acute- to chronic-phase of infection. The presence of PIRs in Maurer's clefts, as seen for Plasmodium falciparum RIFIN and STEVOR proteins, might suggest trafficking of the PIRs on the surface of the infected erythrocytes. However, neither S7 nor L1 PIR proteins detected by the peptide antisera are localised on the surface of infected red blood cells, suggesting that they are unlikely to be targets of surface variant-specific antibodies or to be directly involved in adhesion of infected red blood cells to host cells, as described for Plasmodium falciparum VAR proteins. The differences in subcellular localisation of the two major clades of Plasmodium chabaudi PIRs across the blood cycle, and the apparent lack of expression on the red cell surface strongly suggest that the function(s) of this gene family may differ from those of other multigene families of Plasmodium, such as the var genes of Plasmodium falciparum.

Anti-Trypanosoma activity of bioactive metabolites from Photorhabdus luminescens and Xenorhabdus nematophila.

Only two drugs are currently available for the treatment of Chagas disease and their effectiveness are unsatisfactory. Photorhabdus luminescens and Xenorhabdus nematophila, two enteric bacteria highly pathogenic to a broad range of insects, have been studied as potential source for bioactive metabolites against protozoa causing neglected tropical diseases. Therefore, we tested the in vitro anti-Trypanosoma cruzi activity of secreted metabolites from these bacteria. The conditioned medium of X. nematophila and P. luminescens showed significant parasiticidal activity in a concentration-dependent manner (IC50XN = 0.34 mg/mL, IC50PL = 1.0 mg/mL). The parasiticidal compound was identified as a small molecule stable to heating and pH changes ranging from 2 to 12. Moreover, anti-Trypanosoma molecules secreted by both bacteria stimulate the trypanocidal activity of macrophages by a mechanism independent of nitric oxide. Summarizing, our studies reveal that P. luminescens and X. nematophila are potential sources of putative novel drugs against Chagas disease.

Imidazolium salts as innovative agents against Leishmania amazonensis.

The available chemotherapeutic drugs for the treatment of leishmaniasis present problems relating to efficacy, emergence of parasite resistance, and adverse effects and cost. Azole antifungal drugs have been repurposed for this proposition but the clinical response has been variable. In this sense, this study assessed the leishmanicidal and immunomodulatory activities of azoles-derived imidazolium salts (IS), being the ionic imidazole-derived equivalents: 1-n-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (C4MImCl), 1-n-decyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (C10MImCl), 1-n-hexadecyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (C16MImCl), 1-n-hexadecyl-3-methylimidazolium methanesulfonate (C16MImMeS), 1-n-hexadecyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (C16MImNTf2) and 1-methyl-3-n-octadecylimidazolium chloride (C18MImCl). Promastigotes of Leishmania amazonensis were incubated with IS at concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 100 µM, and the parasite survival was monitored. The effects of IS on reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and mitochondrial membrane potential of promastigotes, as well as on cytotoxicity against peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and human erythrocytes were determined. Besides, the activities of IS against amastigotes and nitric oxide production were also evaluated. The IS inhibited parasite growth and showed potent leishmanicidal activity against promastigotes of L. amazonensis. In addition, IS induced mitochondrial dysfunction and ROS production in parasites, and presented low cytotoxicity against PBMC and human erythrocytes. Furthermore, at very low concentration (0.5 µM), C18MImCl, C16MImMeS, C16MImCl, C10MImCl and C16MImNTf2 were able to kill intramacrophage parasites at levels of 91.3, 100, 94.4, 95.3 and 35.6%, respectively. These results indicate that IS are promising candidates for the development of drugs against L. amazonensis.

Entomopathogenic bacteria Photorhabdus luminescens as drug source against Leishmania amazonensis.

Leishmaniasis is a widely spread and zoonotic disease with serious problems as low effectiveness of drugs, emergence of parasite resistance and severe adverse reactions. In recent years, considerable attention has been given to secondary metabolites produced by Photorhabdus luminescens, an entomopathogenic bacterium. Here, we assessed the leishmanicidal activity of P. luminescens culture fluids. Initially, promastigotes of Leishmania amazonensis were incubated with cell free conditioned medium of P. luminescens and parasite survival was monitored. Different pre-treatments of the conditioned medium revealed that the leishmanicidal activity is due to a secreted peptide smaller than 3 kDa. The Photorhabdus-derived leishmanicidal toxin (PLT) was enriched from conditioned medium and its effect on mitochondrial membrane potential of promastigotes, was determined. Moreover, the biological activity of PLT against amastigotes was evaluated. PLT inhibited the parasite growth and showed significant leishmanicidal activity against promastigote and amastigotes of L. amazonensis. PLT also caused mitochondrial dysfunction in parasites, but low toxicity to mammalian cell and human erythrocytes. Moreover, the anti-amastigote activity was independent of nitric oxide production. In summary, our results highlight that P. luminescens secretes Leishmania-toxic peptide(s) that are promising novel drugs for therapy against leishmaniasis.

The importance of vertical transmission of Neospora sp. in naturally infected horses.

Neospora spp. is a intracellular protozoan phylogenetically closely related to Toxoplasma gondii and Sarcocystis neurona, and it can infect horses leading to the development of reproductive or neurological diseases. We determined the presence of antibodies to Neospora sp. in mares at their parturition time and determine the frequency of vertical transmission in healthy foals to verify the importance of transplacental transmission. The samples were analyzed by indirect immunofluorescence antibody test, showing that seroprevalence in mares is higher than in foals and seropositive mares are likely to transmit the neosporosis to their offspring. This shows that endogenous challenge occurs in horses, and it suggests that this protozoan can be disseminated by means of transplacental transmission in horse species.

Reação de imunofluorescência indireta para detecção de anticorpos anti-Neospora caninum em amostras coletivas de leite / Indirect fluorescent antibody test to detection of Neospora caninum antibodies in samples of bulk milk

O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar a presença de anticorpos anti-Neospora caninum em amostras coletivas de leite, através da reação de imunofluorescência indireta (RIFI). Para isso, foram coletadas amostras do leite dos tanques refrigerados de 36 rebanhos, das quais foram selecionadas 14 para coletas de amostras individuais de soro sanguíneo e de leite das vacas. Encontrou-se correlação em 12 dos 14 rebanhos selecionados para a amostragem individual dos animais, em comparação à detecção de anticorpos nas amostras coletivas de leite. Foi observada uma concordância de 76 por cento comparando-se o resultado das amostras coletivas com os resultados individuais de leite. Observaram-se baixos títulos de anticorpos (50) no soro sanguíneo dos animais soropositivos, cujos resultados da RIFI no leite coletivo e no sangue foram discordantes. Assim, a partir dos resultados deste estudo, pode-se concluir que a utilização de testes sorológicos para detecção de anticorpos anti-N. caninum em amostras coletivas de leite através da RIFI pode ser uma opção ao diagnóstico para a triagem de rebanhos positivos bem como para estudos epidemiológicos.

The aim of this study was to determine the presence of anti-N. caninum in the bulk milk samples by indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFAT). For this, it was collected samples of milk from refrigerated tanks from 36 herds, of which 14 were selected for sampling of individual blood serum and milk of cows. It was found concordance for 12 of the 14 herds selected for samples of individual animals, compared to the detection of antibodies in the bulk milk samples. Concordance was of 76 percent when comparing the results of the pooled sample with the results of individual milk. It was observed low antibody titers (50) in the serum of animals positive whose results in IFA of bulk milk and blood were discordant. Thus, with the results of this study, it can be concluded that the use of serological tests for detection of anti-N. caninum in the bulk milk samples from the IFAT could be an alternative diagnosis for the screening of positive herds as well as for epidemiological studies.

Detecção de anticorpos anti-Neospora caninum em amostras individuais e coletivas de leite de bovinos pela reação de imunofluorescência indireta / Detection of antibodies against Neospora caninum in individual and bulk milk samples from cattle by the technique of indirect immunofluorescence assay

Neospora caninum is a major causative agent of reproductive losses in cattle and the diagnosis of neosporosis is essential for control and eradication programs. Therefore, this study aimed to: (1) standardize an indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFAT) for detection of antibodies against N. caninum in bovine milk, starting from a standard IFAT used for blood serum samples; (2) check the agreement between antibodies detection by IFAT in blood serum and in milk of cows; (3) evaluate the suitability of IFAT for detection of anti-N. caninum antibodies in bulk milk samples. We tested samples of blood serum and milk collected from 112 lactating cows for detection of antibodies against N. caninum, furthermore, six bulk milk samples, each one corresponding to each dairy farm studied. Agreement between the detection of antibodies in blood serum (with antibody titer >50) and in milk, with 90 percent of sensitivity and 100 percent of specificity for the IFAT in milk samples were found in 78 percent of the animals. However, for cows with antibody titers >100 in blood serum, the agreement, the sensitivity and the specificity of the IFAT in milk were of 100 percent. It is shown that, considering the dairy farm conditions. The most appropriate diagnostic approach to be adopted regarding the collection of blood serum or milk can elect for search anti-N. caninum antibodies by IFAT. Moreover, detection of antibodies in bulk milk samples can serve for diagnosis and screening of herds with infected animals.

Neospora caninum é um agente envolvido em perdas reprodutivas em bovinos. O diagnóstico dessa infecção é de grande importância, principalmente para programas de erradicação e controle. Sendo assim, os objetivos deste estudo foram: (1) adaptar uma reação de imunofluorescência indireta (RIFI) para detecção de anticorpos anti-N. caninum no leite, a partir de uma RIFI padronizada para a detecção desses anticorpos no soro sanguíneo, (2) analisar a concordância entre a detecção desses anticorpos pela RIFI no soro sanguíneo e no leite de fêmeas bovinas, (3) avaliar a viabilidade da RIFI para a detecção de anticorpos anti-N. caninum em amostras coletivas de leite. Foram testadas amostras de soro sanguíneo e de leite, coletadas de 112 vacas em lactação, e seis amostras coletivas de leite, correspondentes a cada uma das propriedades avaliadas. Encontrou-se 78 por cento de concordância entre a detecção de anticorpos no soro sanguíneo (com título de anticorpos >50) e no leite, com sensibilidade de 90 por cento e especificidade de 100 por cento para a RIFI nas amostras de leite. Entretanto, para as vacas com títulos de anticorpos >100 no soro sanguíneo, tanto a concordância como os valores de sensibilidade e especificidade da RIFI no leite foram de 100 por cento. Todas as amostras coletivas de leite foram positivas na RIFI. Isso demonstra que, conforme a propriedade pode-se eleger com segurança qual a melhor abordagem diagnóstica a ser adotada em relação à coleta de soro sanguíneo ou de leite para a pesquisa de N. caninum pela RIFI. Além disso, a determinação da presença de anticorpos em amostras coletivas de leite pode servir para diagnóstico e triagem de rebanhos com animais infectados.

Ação anti-helmíntica de diferentes formulações de lactonas macrocíclicas em cepas resistentes de nematódeos de bovinos / Anthelmintic action of different formulations of macrocyclic lactones on resistant strains of nematodes of cattle

As lactonas macrocíclicas (LMs) (avermectinas e milbemicinas) são endectocidas amplamente utilizados em animais e em algumas parasitoses humanas. Em bovinos, a resistência parasitária às LMs é emergente, e o surgimento de formulações que diferem nas suas propriedades farmacológicas tornou complexa a escolha da droga mais indicada a cada caso. Com o objetivo de avaliar possíveis alternativas para recuperar a eficácia de LMs sobre cepas resistentes de nematódeos gastrintestinais, testaram-se, neste estudo, dez diferentes tratamentos a base de LMs sobre uma população de nematódeos gastrintestinais de bovinos a qual, sabidamente, sofrera pressão de seleção por avermectinas a 1 por cento. Adicionalmente, testou-se um benzimidazol. A eficácia das drogas foi calculada com base na redução de ovos por grama de fezes (OPG) dos bovinos. A resistência de cada gênero foi avaliada por meio de identificação de larvas, obtidas de cultivos nas fezes, pré- e pós-tratamentos. Não se obteve a eficácia desejada com o emprego de avermectinas de longa ação - com alta concentração e em associação - ou mesmo, com a aplicação de superdoses. Os gêneros Cooperia spp., Haemonchus spp. e Trichostrongylus spp. foram resistentes às avermectinas, e Ostertagia spp. à ivermectina. Observou-se que, uma vez estabelecida a resistência parasitária a LMs a 1 por cento, a aplicação de fármacos, deste mesmo grupo químico, ainda que em formulações mais concentradas, asso-ciações ou superdoses, pode não resultar na eficácia esperada.

The macrocyclic lactones (MLs) (avermectins and milbemycins) are endectocides broadly used in livestock and in some parasitic diseases of humans. In cattle, parasite resistance to MLs is emerging, and the appearance of formulations that differ in their pharmacological properties become complex the choice of the most appropriate drug to each case. In order to evaluate possible alternatives to restore the effectiveness of MLs on resistant strains of gastrointestinal nematodes, were tested, in this study, ten different treatments based on the MLs on a population of gastrointestinal nematodes of cattle which, known, was under pressure of selection by 1 percent avermectins. Additionally, was tested a benzimidazole. The efficacy of the drugs was calculated with basis on the reduction of eggs per gram of feces (EPG) of cattle. The resistance of each genus was evaluated by identification of the larvae, obtained from culture in the feces, pre- and post-treatments. The desired efficacy was not obtained using long action avermectins - with high concentration and in association - even with the application of high doses. The genera Cooperia spp., Haemonchus spp. and Trichostrongylus spp. were resistant to avermectins, and Ostertagia spp. to ivermectin. It was observed that, once established parasite resistance to the 1 percent MLs, the application of drugs, of this same chemical group, even in formulations of high concentration, association or in high doses, may not result in the expected efficacy.

Contagens de ovos por grama de fezes para o controle anti-helmíntico em bovinos de leite de diferentes faixas etárias / Eggs per gram of feces counting for anthelmintic control in dairy cattle of distinct age groups

O controle anti-helmíntico tem vital importância na produtividade de bovinos de leite e, para sua melhor aplicação, devem ser considerados fatores como a sustentabilidade, o custo/benefício e as práticas de manejo utilizadas em cada rebanho. Este estudo foi realizado com o objetivo de estabelecer critérios para o tratamento anti-helmíntico de bovinos de leite de categorias distintas com base em contagens de ovos por grama de fezes (OPG). Para isso, analisaram-se amostras fecais de 100 bovinos de leite, em diferentes faixas etárias, de pequenas propriedades da região Centro do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Considerando-se os resultados obtidos neste estudo, são indicados os tratamentos seletivos, com base na contagem de OPG, para as fêmeas jovens (até os três meses de vida) e para as vacas lactantes, e o controle estratégico para os bezerros (dos quatro aos 24 meses).

The control of helminth infections has an essential role in the productivity of dairy cattle. Sustainability, cost/benefit and feasibility of the chosen control measures, must be taking into account for each production system. This study aimed to establish criteria for anthelmintic treatment of dairy cattle, in different categories, based on eggs per gram of feces (EPG) counting. For this purpose, it were analyzed fecal samples from 100 dairy cattle, in different age groups, from small farms of the Central region of Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil. Based on these results, the selective treatments, based on EPG, are indicated to female calves (until three months old) and lactating cows, and the strategic control to male and female calves, from four to 24 months old.