Food safety, food security and genetically modified organisms in Africa: a current perspective.

Moving forward from 2020, Africa faces an eminent challenge of food safety and security in the coming years. The World Food Programme (WFP) of the United Nations (UN) estimates that 20% of Africa's population of 1.2 billion people face the highest level of undernourishment in the world, likely to worsen due to COVID-19 pandemic that has brought the entire world to its knees. Factors such as insecurity and conflict, poverty, climate change and population growth have been identified as critical contributors to the food security challenges on the continent. Biotechnological research on Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) provides a range of opportunities (such as increased crop yields, resistance to pests and diseases, enhanced nutrient composition and food quality) in addressing the hunger, malnutrition and food security issues on the continent. However, the acceptance and adoption of GMOs on the continent has been remarkably slow, perhaps due to contrasting views about the benefits and safety concerns associated with them. With the reality of food insecurity and the booming population in Africa, there is an eminent need for a more pragmatic position to this debate. The present review presents an overview of the current situation of food safety and security and attempts to reconcile major viewpoints on GMOs research considering the current food safety and security crisis in the African continent.

Risk assessment of heavy metals in rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) tea consumed in South Africa.

A total of 80 rooibos tea samples from a range of brands were purchased from various registered retail shops in South Africa. The samples were bought during 2019 winter (40) and summer (40) period which are classified as 6 natural rooibos, 18 herbal rooibos samples, and 16 flavor rooibos samples and subjected for heavy metal analysis such as chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb) using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS). Human health risks were determined by estimating the daily intake non-cancer hazard quotient (THQ) and hazard index (HI) via oral exposure to toxic elements based on daily tea consumption. The concentration range of the determined heavy metals in rooibos tea samples were as follows: Cr (0.17-11.98 mg/kg), Fe (31-450 mg/kg), As (ND-0.51 mg/kg), Cd (0.09-0.17 mg/kg), and Pb (0.06-2.73 mg/kg). Cr was found in higher amount when compared to the World Health Organization (WHO) permissive limit (1.3 mg/kg). The concentrations of all studied heavy metals during winter and summer period were compared using two-way Anova, and no significant differences (p = 0.832) were observed for the two seasons. Both the target risk quotient (THQ) and the hazard index (HI) levels in all analyzed tea were well below 1, implying that intake of rooibos tea with analyzed heavy metals should not cause a threat to human health. On the other hand, the continuous intake due to the high concentrations of trace metals such as Cr may pose a serious chronic health risk due to accumulation in body tissues over time. The study, therefore, suggests constant monitoring of these heavy metals in teas in order to limit the risk of exceeding the permissive limits.