Anaplasma phagocytophilum in urban and peri-urban passerine birds in Ile-de-France.

Wild animals in general, birds in particular, play a key role in transporting ticks and propagating tick-borne pathogens. Several studies have confirmed the infection of birds with Anaplasma phagocytophilum, with overall prevalence varying widely from country to country and/or study to study. This zoonotic bacterium, transmitted mainly by ticks of the genus Ixodes, is responsible for granulocytic anaplasmosis in humans (HGA) and domestic animals (cats, dogs, horses). The disease is also called tick-borne fever (TBF) in ruminants. Extremely rare in the USA, TBF is very common in Europe, where it causes economic losses in livestock. Conversely, HGA is well established in the USA whereas only a few less severe cases have been observed in Europe. Current typing techniques support the existence of multiple variants with differences in virulence/pathogenicity and tropism for certain tick and host species. However, epidemiological cycles remain difficult to characterize in Europe. Several studies describe a cycle apparently involving only birds in Europe, but no such study has been conducted in mainland France. Our objectives were to search for A. phagocytophilum in passerine birds in the Ile-de-France region and to explore their diversity using groEL and ankA gene typing and multilocus sequence typing (MLST). Various tissues (spleen, liver, and skin) were collected from cadavers of 680 passerines between March and December 2021. The presence of A. phagocytophilum was detected by qPCR Taqman targeting the msp2 gene. Three blackbirds (Turdus merula) were found positive, representing detection rates of 0.4 % in all birds tested and 3.3 % in blackbirds. The higher frequency of detection in blackbirds could be at least partially explained by their lifestyle, as they feed on the ground. Analysis of the results of groEL and ankA typing and MLST from positive blackbirds support the hypothesis that the avian A. phagocytophilum strains in Ile-de-France are distinct from those found in mammals, and that they form their own cluster in Europe.

Effect of urbanization on the trace element concentrations in the kidney, liver and spines of the European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus).

Urbanized environments may be suitable for some wild species, like the European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus). However, the (sub)urban areas are source of several pollutants, such as trace elements (TEs). The main objective of our study is to investigate the role of the European hedgehog as a potential bioindicator species for seven TEs (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn) in a big urban agglomeration. We analyzed the kidney, liver and spines of 50 European hedgehogs. Moreover, we carried out geographic information system (GIS) with 31 individuals to examine the effects of human pressure (human density and urbanization) on TE concentrations in tissues. We detected the 7 TEs in all tissues. Trace elements, especially Pb and Zn, in the liver, kidney and spines seem to be influenced by human density and urbanization.

Aspergillosis in a colony of Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) in a french zoological park: evaluation of environmental exposure.

Aspergillosis is a major health problem in captive penguins due to the inhalation and the development of airborne spores of opportunistic environmental molds of the genus Aspergillus. Diagnosis is often delayed and treatments, based on the use of azole antifungals, are not fully effective. This study assesses the risk of exposure to Aspergillus sp. and determines the environmental reservoirs in the direct environment of a colony of Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) in a zoological park in Paris, and the risk of contamination with resistant isolates. Every 15 days between February and May 2022, environmental samples (air and subtract from the nests, pond water, pigeon and penguin droppings) were carried out in the penguin enclosure as well as clinical samples (one-time non-invasive sampling on chicks), and screened for Aspergillus sp. conidia. From 191 environmental samples, 264 strains of Aspergillus including 221 strains of A. fumigatus were isolated, mostly from ambient air, in the nests, and pond water. No "at risk" areas in the penguin environment have been highlighted, nor an increased risk because of the proximity with urban wild birds. However, the load of airborne Aspergillus in the nests increased significantly with outdoor temperature. Of the 221 strains isolated, we identified only one azole-resistant strain, displaying the TR34/L98H mutation in the cyp51A gene. This low prevalence of resistant strains may probably be partly explained by the urban location of the zoological park, surrounded by kilometers of urban areas without agricultural activities.

DISEASES OF THE GIANT ANTEATER (MYRMECOPHAGA TRIDACTYLA) IN CAPTIVITY: STUDY OF MEDICAL DATA FROM 99 INDIVIDUALS IN EUROPEAN ZOOS.

The giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) is one of the three species in the family Myrmecophagidae of the suborder Vermilingua. It is the only species of the genus Myrmecophaga. The species, subject to increasing threats in its natural environment, is classified as vulnerable on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species. European zoos are involved in the ex situ conservation of the giant anteater, which is essential for its long-term viability. However, the diseases encountered by European captive populations of giant anteaters are not well documented, and best practice guidelines are not yet available for the species. An online two-part survey was conducted among European institutions hosting or having housed anteaters over a 20-yr period concerning the current management of captive populations and the diseases encountered. Medical data were collected from 99 giant anteaters from 30 institutions. Among the study population, 4% of the individuals were born in the wild and 96% were born in captivity. Seventy animals (71%) were still alive at the time of data collection, with an average age of 8 yr. A predominance of digestive (20%), dermatologic (20%)-with mainly wounds-and internal parasitism (18%) disorders was observed, followed by behavioral (13%), musculoskeletal (12%), respiratory (11%), nutritional (10%), and ocular (9%) disorders. Mortality mainly concerns the most extreme age categories: very young individuals, mostly secondary to trauma, and older individuals with no main cause identified. This paper details all the medical conditions reported in the European captive giant anteaters included in the study. It allows us to formulate some medical and zootechnical recommendations for the species management and to envisage new research perspectives.

Osmotic pump maintains plasma concentrations of meloxicam for 6 days after orthopedic surgery in pigeons (Columba livia).

OBJECTIVE: To determine the plasma concentration of meloxicam delivered via an osmotic pump in pigeons undergoing orthopedic surgery and if an osmotic pump is a suitable alternative to repeated oral administration of this drug. ANIMALS: 16 free-ranging pigeons presented for rehabilitation with a wing fracture. PROCEDURES: An osmotic pump filled with 0.2 mL of 40 mg/mL meloxicam injectable solution was implanted subcutaneously in the inguinal fold of 9 pigeons under anesthesia for orthopedic surgery. The pumps were removed 7 days postsurgery. Blood samples were collected before pump implantation (time 0) and 3, 24, 72, and 168 hours after pump implantation in 2 pigeons in a pilot study then at 12, 24, 72, and 144 hours in the 7 pigeons of the main study. The blood of 7 other pigeons receiving meloxicam at 2 mg/kg, PO, every 12 hours was also sampled between 2 to 6 hours after the last meloxicam administration. Plasma meloxicam concentrations were measured via high-performance liquid chromatography. RESULTS: The plasma concentration of meloxicam was maintained at significant levels from 12 hours to 6 days after osmotic pump implantation. Median and minimum plasma concentrations in implanted pigeons were maintained at the same or higher level than those measured in pigeons that received meloxicam at a dose known to be analgesic in this species. No adverse effects attributable to either osmotic pump implantation and removal or meloxicam delivery were observed in this study. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Plasma concentrations levels of meloxicam in pigeons implanted with osmotic pumps were maintained at a similar concentration or higher than the suggested analgesic meloxicam plasma concentration in this species. Thus, osmotic pumps could represent a suitable alternative to the frequent capture and handling of birds for analgesic drug administration.

Use of a Smartphone-Based Device for Fundus Examination in Birds: A Pilot Study.

Ophthalmic examination is essential in the avian triage process in order to apply prompt therapeutic plans and evaluate rehabilitation potential. Fundoscopy is traditionally performed by direct or indirect ophthalmoscopy. Recent technological developments have enabled the design of a small-sized and affordable retinal imaging system to examine the fundus. We investigate the use of a smartphone-based device to realize fundus examination through a prospective cross-sectional observational study. Seventy-seven eyes of 39 birds of 15 different species were evaluated using the smartphone-based device in a rescue wildlife center. Pupil dilation was achieved prior to examination via rocuronium topical application. Assessment of fundus by the smartphone was classified as satisfactory, moderately satisfactory, and unsatisfactory. Fundus examination was also performed with a 20D, 30D, or 78D lens for comparison. Pupillary dilation was satisfactory, moderately satisfactory, or absent in 17, 32, and 28 eyes, respectively. Fundus examination with the smartphone-based device was satisfactory, moderately satisfactory, or unsatisfactory in 44, 15, and 18 eyes, respectively. The feasibility of the fundus examination was affected by the form of the globe; by the quality of pupil dilation; by the color of the iris (images could not be obtained from species with an orange, bright iris); and by the species, with owls (Strigiformes) being the easiest to observe. Based on these findings, fundus examination was feasible in most bird species examined in this study.

Aspergillosis in Wild Birds.

The ubiquitous fungi belonging to the genus Aspergillus are able to proliferate in a large number of environments on organic substrates. The spores of these opportunistic pathogens, when inhaled, can cause serious and often fatal infections in a wide variety of captive and free-roaming wild birds. The relative importance of innate immunity and the level of exposure in the development of the disease can vary considerably between avian species and epidemiological situations. Given the low efficacy of therapeutic treatments, it is essential that breeders or avian practitioners know the conditions that favor the emergence of Aspergillosis in order to put adequate preventive measures in place.

Detection and Control of Dermatophytosis in Wild European Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) Admitted to a French Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre.

The rising number of European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) admitted every year to wildlife rehabilitation centres might be a source of concern to animal and public health since transmissible diseases, such as dermatophytosis, can be easily disseminated. This study seeks to evaluate the frequency of dermatophyte detection in hedgehogs admitted to a wildlife rehabilitation centre located near Paris, France, and to assess the risk of contamination in the centre in order to adapt prevention measures. A longitudinal cohort study was performed on 412 hedgehogs hosted at the Wildlife Animal Hospital of the Veterinary College of Alfort from January to December 2016. Animals were sampled once a month for fungal culture. Dermatophyte colonies were obtained from 174 out of 686 skin samples (25.4%). Besides Trichophyton erinacei, Trichophyton mentagrophytes and Nannizzia gypsea were also found. Dermatophyte detection seemed to be associated with the presence of skin lesions, while more than one-third of T. erinacei-positive animals were asymptomatic carriers. Healing required several months of treatment with topical and systemic azoles, but dermatophytosis did not seem to reduce the probability of release. Daily disinfection procedures and early detection and treatment of infected and asymptomatic carriers succeeded in limiting dermatophyte transmission between hedgehogs and humans.

Cellular and molecular insights on the regulation of innate immune responses to experimental aspergillosis in chicken and turkey poults.

Across the world, many commercial poultry flocks and captive birds are threatened by infection with Aspergillus fumigatus. Susceptibility to aspergillosis varies among birds; among galliform birds specifically, morbidity and mortality rates seem to be greater in turkeys than in chickens. Little is known regarding the features of avian immune responses after inhalation of Aspergillus conidia, and to date, scarce information on inflammatory responses during aspergillosis exists. Thus, in the present study, we aimed to improve our understanding of the interactions between A. fumigatus and economically relevant galliform birds in terms of local innate immune responses. Intra-tracheal aerosolization of A. fumigatus conidia in turkey and chicken poults led to more severe clinical signs and lung lesions in turkeys, but leukocyte recovery from lung lavages was higher in chickens at 1dpi only. Interestingly, only chicken CD8+ T lymphocyte proportions increased after infection. Furthermore, the lungs of infected chickens showed an early upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1ß, IFN-γ and IL-6, whereas in turkeys, most of these cytokines showed a downregulation or a delayed upregulation. These results confirmed the importance of an early pro-inflammatory response to ensure the development of an appropriate anti-fungal immunity to avoid Aspergillus dissemination in the respiratory tract. In conclusion, we show for the first time that differences in local innate immune responses between chickens and turkeys during aspergillosis may determine the outcome of the disease.

Aspergillus fumigatus infection may cause mortality in poultry, depending on species sensitivity. This study confirms the earlier activation of chickens' pro-inflammatory effectors to control Aspergillus dissemination, whereas turkeys' immune response enables the exacerbation of lung lesions.

CLOUDED LEOPARD (NEOFELIS NEBULOSA) MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY IN CAPTIVE-BRED POPULATIONS: A COMPREHENSIVE RETROSPECTIVE STUDY OF MEDICAL DATA FROM 271 INDIVIDUALS IN EUROPEAN, ASIAN, AND AUSTRALIAN ZOOS.

The clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) is classified as vulnerable on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species. However, diseases affecting this species across zoo populations are not well documented. The primary objective of this retrospective study was to identify common and significant causes of morbidity and mortality in captive-bred clouded leopards from European, Asian, and Australian institutions. Medical records from 44 zoological parks that held 271 clouded leopards from 1934 to 2017 were reviewed. Major causes of mortality in the dead leopards (n = 141) were respiratory disease (17%), maternal neglect and starvation (12%), generalized infectious disease (10%), digestive disease (10%), and trauma (10%). Six animals lived more than 20 yr and two were older than 22 yr. Diseases were recorded 344 times (average of two per leopard) in 166 living leopards. The body systems most frequently affected by disease in these 166 individuals were, in order of frequency, integumentary (prevalence = 21%), digestive (21%), respiratory (16%), musculoskeletal (12%), and urinary (10%) systems. Neoplasia (7%) was less frequent, followed by cardiovascular (5%), genital (3%), and viral (3%) disorders. Extensive, self-induced alopecia on the tail and dorsum was the most frequently reported dermatological disease, which is proposed to be called the "clouded leopard alopecia syndrome." The most common neoplasm was pheochromocytoma (1%), followed by squamous cell carcinoma of the paw pads, pleural mesothelioma and multicentric lymphomas (<1% each). Dilated cardiomyopathy (2%) was the most common cardiovascular disease. Bronchopneumonia (7%), enteritis (4%), and nephritis (4%) were the most frequently reported respiratory, digestive, and renal diseases, respectively. Diagnosed disease incidence was significantly higher in Europe. This paper reports the results of a comprehensive study of the causes of morbidity and mortality in European, Asian, and Australian clouded leopard zoo populations.

Occurrence and species diversity of human-pathogenic Mucorales in commercial food-stuffs purchased in Paris area.

Mucormycoses are life-threatening fungal diseases that affect a variety of patients including those with diabetes mellitus or hematological malignancies. The responsible agents, the Mucorales, are opportunistic pathogens originating from the environment such as soil or decaying organic matter. The aim of the present study was to assess the prevalence and diversity of human-pathogenic species of Mucorales in commercially available foodstuffs in France. All food samples were purchased from January 2014 to May 2015 in France. A total of 159 dried food samples including spices and herbs (n = 68), herbal tea (n = 19), cereals (n = 19), vegetables (n = 14), and other foodstuffs (n = 39) were analyzed. Each strain of Mucorales was identified phenotypically, and molecular identification was performed by ITS sequencing. From the 28 (17.6%) samples that were culture-positive for Mucorales, 30 isolates were recovered. Among the isolates, 13 were identified as Rhizopus arrhizus var. arrhizus, 10 R. arrhizus var. delemar, two Rhizopus microsporus, one Lichtheimia corymbifera, three Lichtheimia ramosa, and one Syncephalastrum racemosum. Culture-positive samples originated from different countries (Europe, Asia) and brands. The samples most frequently contaminated by Mucorales were spices and herbs (19/68, 27.9%), followed by herbal tea (2/19, 10.5%), cereals (2/19, 10.5%), other food products (5/39, 12.8%). The present study showed that human-pathogenic Mucorales were frequently recovered from commercially available foodstuffs in France with a large diversity of species. The potential danger represented by Mucorales present in food for immunocompromised patients should be further analyzed.

Management of Polyarthritis Affecting Sea Turtles at Kélonia, the Reunion Island Sea Turtle Observatory (2013-17).

All sea turtle species are listed on the Red List of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature due to multiple threats. Among these, disease is a frequent cause of stranded sea turtles encountered in rehabilitation centers. Since 2013, we found joint swelling in 13 sea turtles belonging to all four sea turtle species submitted to the Kélonia Sea Turtle Observatory of Reunion Island, France. Affected sea turtles presented with lameness, anorexia, and lethargy. Polyarthritis was radiographically confirmed and lesions were characterized by progressive osteolysis of bones surrounding joints. Anterior flippers were affected in all cases and posterior flippers were also involved in some cases. We isolated several bacterial agents from blood and synovial fluid. We attempted a collective treatment with injectable florfenicol, based on sensitivity results, which was continued for 4 wk and then as needed based on radiographic evolution of the lesions. Radiographic stabilization of the lesions occurred in nine of 13 cases. We reviewed environmental conditions and optimized them to minimize stress that could predispose these rehabilitated sea turtles to opportunistic infections. Handling techniques used to move sea turtles were also improved. While we can make no conclusion regarding the cause of polyarthritis in this population of sea turtles, we successfully managed this poorly described problem in a rehabilitation setting.

Characteristics of Aspergillus fumigatus in Association with Stenotrophomonas maltophilia in an In Vitro Model of Mixed Biofilm.

BACKGROUND: Biofilms are communal structures of microorganisms that have long been associated with a variety of persistent infections poorly responding to conventional antibiotic or antifungal therapy. Aspergillus fumigatus fungus and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteria are examples of the microorganisms that can coexist to form a biofilm especially in the respiratory tract of immunocompromised patients or cystic fibrosis patients. The aim of the present study was to develop and assess an in vitro model of a mixed biofilm associating S. maltophilia and A. fumigatus by using analytical and quantitative approaches. MATERIALS AND METHODS: An A. fumigatus strain (ATCC 13073) expressing a Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) and an S. maltophilia strain (ATCC 13637) were used. Fungal and bacterial inocula (105 conidia/mL and 106 cells/mL, respectively) were simultaneously deposited to initiate the development of an in vitro mixed biofilm on polystyrene supports at 37°C for 24 h. The structure of the biofilm was analysed via qualitative microscopic techniques like scanning electron and transmission electron microscopy, and fluorescence microscopy, and by quantitative techniques including qPCR and crystal violet staining. RESULTS: Analytic methods revealed typical structures of biofilm with production of an extracellular matrix (ECM) enclosing fungal hyphae and bacteria. Quantitative methods showed a decrease of A. fumigatus growth and ECM production in the mixed biofilm with antibiosis effect of the bacteria on the fungi seen as abortive hyphae, limited hyphal growth, fewer conidia, and thicker fungal cell walls. CONCLUSION: For the first time, a mixed A. fumigatus-S. maltophilia biofilm was validated by various analytical and quantitative approaches and the bacterial antibiosis effect on the fungus was demonstrated. The mixed biofilm model is an interesting experimentation field to evaluate efficiency of antimicrobial agents and to analyse the interactions between the biofilm and the airways epithelium.

Aspergillus and aspergilloses in wild and domestic animals: a global health concern with parallels to human disease.

The importance of aspergillosis in humans and various animal species has increased over the last decades. Aspergillus species are found worldwide in humans and in almost all domestic animals and birds as well as in many wild species, causing a wide range of diseases from localized infections to fatal disseminated diseases, as well as allergic responses to inhaled conidia. Some prevalent forms of animal aspergillosis are invasive fatal infections in sea fan corals, stonebrood mummification in honey bees, pulmonary and air sac infection in birds, mycotic abortion and mammary gland infections in cattle, guttural pouch mycoses in horses, sinonasal infections in dogs and cats, and invasive pulmonary and cerebral infections in marine mammals and nonhuman primates. This article represents a comprehensive overview of the most common infections reported by Aspergillus species and the corresponding diseases in various types of animals.

Assessment of Aspergillus fumigatus burden in lungs of intratracheally-challenged turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) by quantitative PCR, galactomannan enzyme immunoassay, and quantitative culture.

Aspergillus fumigatus remains a major respiratory pathogen in birds and treatment is still difficult. We challenged different groups of few-day-old turkeys via intratracheal aerosolisation with increasing concentrations (10(5) up to 10(8)) of conidia using a MicroSprayer(®) device. The fungal burden was assessed by real-time PCR, galactomannan dosage, CFU counting and histopathological evaluation in order to provide a comparison of these results within each inoculum groups. Significant mortality, occurring in the first 96h after inoculation, was only observed at the highest inoculum dose. Culture counts, GM index and qPCR results on the one hand and inoculum size on the other hand appeared to be clearly correlated. The mean fungal burden detected by qPCR was 1.3log10 units higher than the mean values obtained by CFU measurement. The new model and the markers will be used to evaluate the efficacy of antifungal treatments that could be used in poultry farms.

Mutations in the Cyp51A gene and susceptibility to itraconazole in Aspergillus fumigatus isolated from avian farms in France and China.

Azole resistance in the fungal pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus is an emerging problem and may develop during azole therapy in humans and animals or exposure to azole fungicides in the environment. To assess the potential risk of azole-resistance emergence in avian farms where azole compounds are used for the control of avian mycoses, we conducted a drug susceptibility study including A. fumigatus isolates from birds and avian farms in France and Southern China. A total number of 175 isolates were analyzed: 57 isolates were collected in France in avian farms where chemoprophylaxis with parconazole was performed; 51 isolates were collected in southern China in avian farms where no chemoprophylaxis was performed; and 67 additional isolates came from the collection of a mycology laboratory. No resistant isolate was detected, and the distribution of minimum inhibitory concentrations was similar for isolates collected in farms with or without azole chemoprophylaxis. For 61 randomly selected isolates, the full coding sequence of the Cyp51A gene was determined to detect mutations. Nine amino acid alterations were found in the target enzyme, 3 of which were new.

Assessment of Aspergillus fumigatus pathogenicity in aerosol-challenged chickens (Gallus gallus) belonging to two lineages.

Infection due to the mold Aspergillus fumigatus remains a common and life-threatening infection in many animals, especially birds. Animal models are still required to better understand the physiopathology of infection and evaluate diagnostic tools and treatment procedures. The aim of the present study was to assess the pathogenicity of A. fumigatus in two lineages of chicken (Gallus gallus): SPF White Leghorn PA12 layers and conventional JA657 broilers. Four-day-old birds were experimentally infected in an inhalation chamber in order to reproduce a "natural" contamination and to obtain a large repartition of conidia into the respiratory tract. Half of the chicks were injected subcutaneously with dexamethasone for 4 days before the infective challenge. At days 0 and 7, the effects of chicken lineage and immunosuppressive treatment on pulmonary fungal burden were analyzed using two linear mixed models. The pathogenicity of A. fumigatus varied according to the lineage: no clinical signs and no mortality were observed in layer chickens whereas more than 50% of mortality occurred in broilers. The effect of immunosuppressive treatment was also demonstrated, notably on animals weight but also on mortality.

Extended-spectrum ß-lactamase CTX-M-15-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae of sequence type ST274 in companion animals.

Screening of extended-spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Gram-negative bacteria in companion animals living in the Paris area in France identified a high rate of CTX-M-15-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae. Those isolates were recovered during the 2010-2011 period from both infections and asymptomatic colonizations. Sequence typing revealed that most of these isolates belonged to sequence type ST274. Interestingly, the bla(CTX-M-15) gene was located on a specific and novel plasmid scaffold. These findings highlight that companion animals may be reservoirs for CTX-M-15-producing K. pneumoniae evolving separately from the human reservoir of CTX-M-15 producers.

Simple and highly discriminatory VNTR-based multiplex PCR for tracing sources of Aspergillus flavus isolates.

Aspergillus flavus is second only to A. fumigatus in causing invasive aspergillosis and it is the major agent responsible for fungal sinusitis, keratitis and endophthalmitis in many countries in the Middle East, Africa and Southeast Asia. Despite the growing challenge due to A. flavus, data on the molecular epidemiology of this fungus remain scarce. The objective of the present study was to develop a new typing method based on the detection of VNTR (Variable number tandem repeat) markers. Eight VNTR markers located on 6 different chromosomes (1, 2, 3, 5, 7 and 8) of A. flavus were selected, combined by pairs for multiplex amplifications and tested on 30 unrelated isolates and six reference strains. The Simpson index for individual markers ranged from 0.398 to 0.818. A combined loci index calculated with all the markers yielded an index of 0.998. The MLVA (Multiple Locus VNTR Analysis) technique proved to be specific and reproducible. In a second time, a total of 55 isolates from Chinese avian farms and from a Tunisian hospital have been evaluated. One major cluster of genotypes could be defined by using the graphing algorithm termed Minimum Spanning Tree. This cluster comprised most of the isolates collected in an avian farm in southern China. The MLVA technique should be considered as an excellent and cost-effective typing method that could be used in many laboratories without the need for sophisticated equipment.

Aspergillus fumigatus in Poultry.

Aspergillus fumigatus remains a major respiratory pathogen in birds. In poultry, infection by A. fumigatus may induce significant economic losses particularly in turkey production. A. fumigatus develops and sporulates easily in poor quality bedding or contaminated feedstuffs in indoor farm environments. Inadequate ventilation and dusty conditions increase the risk of bird exposure to aerosolized spores. Acute cases are seen in young animals following inhalation of spores, causing high morbidity and mortality. The chronic form affects older birds and looks more sporadic. The respiratory tract is the primary site of A. fumigatus development leading to severe respiratory distress and associated granulomatous airsacculitis and pneumonia. Treatments for infected poultry are nonexistent; therefore, prevention is the only way to protect poultry. Development of avian models of aspergillosis may improve our understanding of its pathogenesis, which remains poorly understood.