The "FIFTY SHADOWS" of the RALES Trial: Lessons about the Potential Risk of Dietary Potassium Supplementation in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease.

Hyperkalaemia (HK) is one of the most common electrolyte disorders and a frequent reason for nephrological consultations. High serum potassium (K+) levels are associated with elevated morbidity and mortality, mainly due to life-threatening arrhythmias. In the majority of cases, HK is associated with chronic kidney disease (CKD), or with the use of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors (RAASis) and/or mineral corticoid antagonists (MRAs). These drugs represent the mainstays of treatment in CKD, HF, diabetes, hypertension, and even glomerular diseases, in consideration of their beneficial effect on hard outcomes related to cardiovascular events and CKD progression. However, experiences in relation to the Randomised Aldactone Evaluation Study (RALES) cast a long shadow that extends to the present day, since the increased risk for HK remains a major concern. In this article, we summarise the physiology of K+ homeostasis, and we review the effects of dietary K+ on blood pressure and cardiovascular risk in the general population and in patients with early CKD, who are often not aware of this disease. We conclude with a note of caution regarding the recent publication of the SSaSS trial and the use of salt substitutes, particularly in patients with a limited capacity to increase K+ secretion in response to an exogenous load, particularly in the context of "occult" CKD, HF, and in patients taking RAASis and/or MRAs.

Anaerobic submerged membrane bioreactor (AnSMBR) treating municipal wastewater at ambient temperature: Operation and potential use for agricultural irrigation.

A 496 L pilot scale anaerobic submerged membrane bioreactor (AnSMBR) for the treatment of municipal wastewater was evaluated during a year of stable operation at ambient (28-10 °C) temperature, and inoculated with mesophilic inoculum. The temperature was the main parameter affecting the process performance. The chemical oxygen demand (COD) of the effluent was around 150 mg O2/L in the summer period, operating with a volumetric loading rate (VLR) of 5 kg COD/m3 d and hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 8-10 h, with a specific methane production between 0.09 and 0.14 Nm3/kg CODremoved. However, during the winter season, an important increase of effluent COD was observed, and therefore the VLR was decreased to values around 1 kg COD/m3 d in order to recover the quality of the effluent. Biogas production was negligible in this period. The effluent complies with the parameters stipulated by Spanish law regarding the use of treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation.

Switch from epoetin to darbepoetin alfa in hemodialysis: dose equivalence and hemoglobin stability.

AIM: The objective of the study reported here was to describe dose equivalence and hemoglobin (Hb) stability in a cohort of unselected hemodialysis patients who were switched simultaneously from epoetin alfa to darbepoetin alfa. METHODS: This was a multicenter, observational, retrospective study in patients aged ≥18 years who switched from intravenous (IV) epoetin alfa to IV darbepoetin alfa in October 2007 (Month 0) and continued on hemodialysis for at least 24 months. The dose was adjusted to maintain Hb within 1.0 g/dL of baseline. RESULTS: We included 125 patients (59.7% male, mean [standard deviation (SD)] age 70.4 [13.4] years). No significant changes were observed in Hb levels (mean [SD] 11.9 [1.3] g/dL, 12.0 [1.5], 12.0 [1.5], and 12.0 [1.7] at Months -12, 0, 12 and 24, respectively, P=0.409). After conversion, the erythropoiesis-stimulating agent (ESA) dose decreased significantly (P<0.0001), with an annual mean of 174.7 (88.7) international units (IU)/kg/week for epoetin versus 95.7 (43.4) (first year) and 91.4 (42.7) IU/kg/week (second year) for darbepoetin (65% and 64% reduction, respectively). The ESA resistance index decreased from 15.1 (8.5) IU/kg/week/g/dL with epoetin to 8.1 (3.9) (first year) and 7.9 (4.0) (second year) with darbepoetin (P<0.0001). The conversion rate was 354:1 in patients requiring high (>200 IU/kg/week) doses of epoetin and 291:1 in patients requiring low doses. CONCLUSION: In patients on hemodialysis receiving ESAs, conversion from epoetin alfa to darbepoetin alfa was associated with an approximate and persistent reduction of 65% of the required dose. To maintain Hb stability, a conversion rate of 300:1 seems to be appropriate for most patients receiving low doses of epoetin alfa (≤200 IU/kg/week), while 350:1 would be better for patients receiving higher doses.

Costes comparativos entre los conciertos de hemodiálisis y diálisis peritoneal / Cost comparison between haemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis outsourcing agreements

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Cost-effectiveness analysis of the Spanish renal replacement therapy program.

BACKGROUND: We undertook a cost-effectiveness analysis of the Spanish Renal Replacement Therapy (RRT) program for end-stage renal disease patients from a societal perspective. The current Spanish situation was compared with several hypothetical scenarios. METHODS: A Markov chain model was used as a foundation for simulations of the Spanish RRT program in three temporal horizons (5, 10, and 15 years). The current situation (scenario 1) was compared with three different scenarios: increased proportion of overall scheduled (planned) incident patients (scenario 2); constant proportion of overall scheduled incident patients, but increased proportion of scheduled incident patients on peritoneal dialysis (PD), resulting in a lower proportion of scheduled incident patients on hemodialysis (HD) (scenario 3); and increased overall proportion of scheduled incident patients together with increased scheduled incidence of patients on PD (scenario 4). RESULTS: The incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) of scenarios 2, 3, and 4, when compared with scenario 1, were estimated to be, respectively, -€83 150, -€354 977, and -€235 886 per incremental quality-adjusted life year (ΔQALY), evidencing both moderate cost savings and slight effectiveness gains. The net health benefits that would accrue to society were estimated to be, respectively, 0.0045, 0.0211, and 0.0219 ΔQALYs considering a willingness-to-pay threshold of €35 000/ΔQALY. CONCLUSIONS: Scenario 1, the current Spanish situation, was dominated by all the proposed scenarios. Interestingly, scenarios 3 and 4 showed the best results in terms of cost-effectiveness. From a cost-effectiveness perspective, an increase in the overall scheduled incidence of RRT, and particularly that of PD, should be promoted.

Cost analysis of the Spanish renal replacement therapy programme.

BACKGROUND: A cost analysis of the Spanish Renal Replacement Therapy (RRT) programme in the year 2010, for end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients, was performed from the perspective of the Public Administration. METHODS: The costs associated with each RRT modality [hemodialysis (HD), peritoneal dialysis (PD) and kidney transplantation (Tx)] were analysed. The Spanish ESRD incidence and prevalence figures in the year 2010 were forecasted in order to enable the calculation of an aggregate cost for each modality. Costs were mainly computed based on a review of the existing literature and of the Official Bulletins of the Spanish Autonomous Communities. Data from Oblikue Consulting eSalud health care costs database and from several Spanish public sources were also employed. RESULTS: In the year 2010, the forecasted incidence figures for HD, PD and Tx were 5409, 822 and 2317 patients, respectively. The forecasted prevalence figures were 22,582, 2420 and 24,761 patients, respectively. The average annual per-patient costs (incidence and prevalence) were €2651 and €37,968 (HD), €1808 and €25,826 (PD) and €38,313 and €6283 (Tx). Indirect costs amounted to €8929 (HD), €7429 (PD) and €5483 (Tx). The economic impact of the Spanish RRT programme on the Public Administration budget was estimated at ~€1829 million (indirect costs included): €1327 (HD), €109 (PD) and €393 (Tx) million. CONCLUSIONS: HD accounted for >70% of the aggregate costs of the Spanish RRT programme in 2010. From a costs minimization perspective, it would be preferable if the number of incident and prevalent patients in PD were increased.

[Dialysis and transplant. Spain in 2005]. / Informe de Situación de Diálisis y Trasplante en España, 2005.

In 2005, renal replace treatment (dialysis and transplant) was necessary for about 40,000 people, without being known the number accurate and either their basic characteristics, such as: time in treatment, modality or treatment changes. The presented data cover the 76% of the Spanish population and are the result of the cooperation among technicians of registries, nephrologists and transplant coordinations. 4,125 people started RRT in 2005, the total estimated acceptance rate for renal replacement therapy in adults in Spain was 126 pmp and regarding other European countries it locates us in an intermediate area. The incidence rate seems to keep stable in the last years although there were some differences among communities (from 104 pmp in Castile and Leon to 186 pmp in Canary Islands). Diabetes Mellitus is the most diagnosed cause of renal failure in 2005, more than 20% of patients, followed by vascular diseases. The estimated prevalence of renal replacement therapy in Spain at the end of 2005 was 903 pmp, with important variations among communities (from 806 pmp in Cantabria to 1056 pmp in Valencia Region). The 47% of prevalent RRT patients had a functioning transplant. Mortality on haemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis was 13.7% and 10.8% respectively. Mortality on transplant was 1.3%, one of the lowest values registered so far. Mortality on renal replacement therapy was around 5% among patients from 45 to 64 years, 11% between 65 and 74 years and 19% among the patients older than 75 years.

Impact of end-stage renal disease care in planned dialysis start and type of renal replacement therapy--a Spanish multicentre experience.

BACKGROUND: Timely referral, preparation and initiation of dialysis remain problematic issues. The purpose of this study is to analyse the effect of chronic renal disease care and education on the mode of dialysis start (planned vs non-planned) and on the modality of renal replacement therapy (RRT). METHODS: A total of 1504 patients from 35 hospitals started RRT in 2003. Out-patient, scheduled initiation of dialysis with a permanent vascular or peritoneal access was considered planned. RESULTS: About 46% of the patients started non-planned dialysis. Of all the patients, 75% had > or =3 months of nephrological follow-up, but nearly half were never educated on dialysis options. Haemodialysis (HD) occurred in 82% and peritoneal dialysis (PD) in 18%. Planned starts were associated (all P < 0.001) with many factors: younger age, longer renal and pre-dialysis follow-up, more education on RRT and general care, more medical visits, more PD (27 vs 8%), more follow-up by specific end-stage renal disease (ESRD) units, more permanent access and better biochemical status at the start of dialysis. Some global differences were found between patients: planned vs non-planned with > or =3 months of follow-up, vs non-planned <3 months follow-up or acute non-planned and <3 months of follow-up or acute patients. HD occurred in a similar rate (92%) in patients with non-planned start, no previous follow-up or who were never educated in dialysis modality options. CONCLUSION: Although a high prevalence of nephrologic care and follow-up was provided among incident patients in dialysis, nearly half the patients did not have a planned dialysis start nor dialysis modality education. Planned start was associated with better analytical and multidisciplinary status. PD was more prevalent in planned starts and when education was given. Specific ESRD units were more likely to provide an optimal care.

Prevalencia de la infección por el VIH en centros de diálisis en España y potenciales candidatos para trasplante renal: resultados de una encuesta española / Prevalence of HIV-1-infection in dialysis units in Spain and potential candidates for renal transplantation: results of a spanish survey

Introducción. La supervivencia de los pacientes infectados por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH) en situación de enfermedad renal crónica avanzada (ERCA) ha mejorado significativamente en los últimos años. La infección por el VIH ha dejado de ser una contraindicación para inclusión en terapia renal sustitutiva (TRS) y también para el trasplante renal, pero existe poca experiencia al respecto. En España no existen datos sobre prevalencia de la infección por el VIH en pacientes en TRS. Métodos. Se realizó una encuesta a los centros de diálisis españoles en el año 2004. Los objetivos fueron conocer la prevalencia y las características de la infección por el VIH en los pacientes en TRS en España, y saber cuántos de ellos serían candidatos para ser incluidos en lista de espera para trasplante renal. Resultados. La prevalencia de infección por el VIH fue del 1,15% (intervalo de confianza [IC] del 95%: 0,85-1,45) del total de 4.962 pacientes bajo TRS. La mayoría de ellos en hemodiálisis y en menor número en diálisis peritoneal. El factor de riesgo más frecuente para adquirir el VIH fue la vía parenteral (58%). La causa más frecuente de ERCA fueron las glomerulonefritis (44%). La media de tiempo en TRS fue de 46 meses. Hubo coinfecciones por virus de la hepatitis C (VHC) en el 60% y B (VHB) en el 7%. El 34% de pacientes habían presentado episodios C de forma previa. El 86% estaban en tratamiento antirretroviral de gran actividad. La media de CD4 era de 333 cél./μl y la carga viral fue indetectable en el 68%. Nueve de los 40 pacientes con un cuestionario clínico completo (22,5%) cumplirían los criterios españoles para trasplante renal. Conclusión: La prevalencia de la infección por el VIH en pacientes en TRS en España es del 1,15% (0,85-1,45%). El 22,5% de estos pacientes cumplirían los criterios españoles para ser incluidos en lista de espera para trasplante renal (AU)

Introduction. Patients with HIV infection and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) have improved their survival in the last few years. HIV infection is not considered a contradiction for renal transplantation, but little experience exists in renal transplantation in HIV infected individuals. There is no information about the prevalence of HIV infection in Spanish patients under renal replacement therapies (RRT). Methods. A survey was performed in Spanish dialysis units during 2004. The objective was to study the prevalence and characteristics of HIV infection in patients under RRT in Spain. We also aimed to know how many of them met the Spanish criteria to be included on the renal transplantation waiting list. Results. HIV prevalence was 1.15% (95%CI 0.85-1.45) of 4,962 patients who were under RRT, mostly under hemodialysis and, less commonly, peritoneal dialysis. The most frequent risk factor for HIV infection was parenteral drug use (58%). The most common causes of ESRD were glomerulonephritis (44%). The median time under RRT was 46 months. Coinfections with hepatitis C (60%) and B (7%) were found. Thirty-four percent of patients had a history of aids-defining events. Eighty-six percent were under HAART. The median CD4 cell count was 333 cells/μl and the viral load was undetectable in 68%. Of 40 patients with a completed clinical questionnaire, 9 (22.5%) met the Spanish criteria for renal transplantation. Conclusion. HIV prevalence in patients under RRT in Spain is 1.15% (0.85%-1.45%) and 22.5% percent of these patients met the Spanish criteria to be included on a renal transplantation waiting list (AU)

[Prevalence of HIV-1-infection in dialysis units in Spain and potential candidates for renal transplantation: results of a Spanish survey]. / Prevalencia de la infección por el VIH en centros de diálisis en España y potenciales candidatos para trasplante renal: resultados de una encuesta española.

INTRODUCTION: Patients with HIV infection and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) have improved their survival in the last few years. HIV infection is not considered a contradiction for renal transplantation, but little experience exists in renal transplantation in HIV infected individuals. There is no information about the prevalence of HIV infection in Spanish patients under renal replacement therapies (RRT). METHODS: A survey was performed in Spanish dialysis units during 2004. The objective was to study the prevalence and characteristics of HIV infection in patients under RRT in Spain. We also aimed to know how many of them met the Spanish criteria to be included on the renal transplantation waiting list. RESULTS: HIV prevalence was 1.15% (95%CI 0.85-1.45) of 4,962 patients who were under RRT, mostly under hemodialysis and, less commonly, peritoneal dialysis. The most frequent risk factor for HIV infection was parenteral drug use (58%). The most common causes of ESRD were glomerulonephritis (44%). The median time under RRT was 46 months. Coinfections with hepatitis C (60%) and B (7%) were found. Thirty-four percent of patients had a history of aids-defining events. Eighty-six percent were under HAART. The median CD4 cell count was 333 cells/.l and the viral load was undetectable in 68%. Of 40 patients with a completed clinical questionnaire, 9 (22.5%) met the Spanish criteria for renal transplantation. CONCLUSION: HIV prevalence in patients under RRT in Spain is 1.15% (0.85%-1.45%) and 22.5% percent of these patients met the Spanish criteria to be included on a renal transplantation waiting list.

Renal cell carcinoma co-existent with other renal disease: clinico-pathological features in pre-dialysis patients and those receiving dialysis or renal transplantation.

BACKGROUND: Patients on chronic dialysis are prone to developing acquired cystic kidney disease (ACKD), which may lead to the development of renal cell carcinoma (RCC). The risk factors for the development of RCC so far have not been determined in pre-dialysis patients with co-existent renal disease. The aim of this study was to evaluate the clinico-pathological features of RCC in pre-dialysis patients with associated renal diseases or in those undergoing chronic dialysis and renal transplantation. METHODS: We studied 32 kidneys from 31 patients with RCC and associated renal diseases. Of those, 18 kidneys were from 17 patients not on renal replacement therapy (RRT) when diagnosed with RCC; 14 patients received dialysis or dialysis followed by renal transplantation. Several clinico-pathological features were analysed and compared between the two groups. RESULTS: Overall, there was a preponderance of males (75%); nephrosclerosis was the predominant co-existent disease (31%). The median intervals from renal disease to RCC in the dialysis and transplanted groups were significantly longer than in the pre-dialysis group (15.8+/-1.1 vs 2.4+/-0.7 years, P<0.0001). In contrast to pre-dialysis RCC, the dialysis and transplant RCC groups had greater frequency of ACKD (100 vs 28%, P<0.0001), papillary type RCC (43 vs 11%, P<0.05) and multifocal tumours (43 vs 5%, P<0.05). At the end of the study, 71% of dialysis and transplanted patients and 72% of pre-dialysis patients were alive. CONCLUSIONS: ACKD develops in dialysis patients, as it does in those with renal disease prior to RRT. The duration of renal disease, rather than the dialysis procedure itself, appears to be the main determinant of ACKD and RCC. The RCC occurring in patients with ACKD and prolonged RRT is more frequently of the papillary type and multifocal than the RCC occurring in patients with no or few acquired cysts and a short history of renal disease. Long-term outcomes did not differ between the two groups.