The use of molecular markers in the verification of fish and seafood authenticity and the detection of adulteration.

The verification of authenticity and detection of food mislabeling are elements that have been of high importance for centuries. During the last few decades there has been an increasing consumer demand for the verification of food identity and the implementation of stricter controls around these matters. Fish and seafood are among the most easily adulterated foodstuffs mainly due to the significant alterations of the species' morphological characteristics that occur during the different types of processing, which render the visual identification of the animals impossible. Even simple processes, such as filleting remove very important morphological elements and suffice to prevent the visual identification of species in marketed products. Novel techniques have therefore been developed that allow identification of species, the differentiation between species and also the differentiation of individuals that belong to the same species but grow in different populations and regions. Molecular markers have been used during the last few decades to fulfill this purpose and several improvements have been implemented rendering their use applicable to a commercial scale. The reliability, accuracy, reproducibility, and time-and cost-effectiveness of these techniques allowed them to be established as routine methods in the industry and research institutes. This review article aims at presenting the most important molecular markers used for the authentication of fish and seafood. The most important techniques are described, and the results of numerous studies are outlined and discussed, allowing interested parties to easily access and compare information about several techniques and fish/seafood species.

Application of modified atmosphere packaging on aquacultured fish and fish products: A review.

The aquaculture industry has undergone a rapid and continuous growth during the last decade due to increased demands in seafood consumption and reduced pelagic fish production. The aquaculture sector can provide products with a consistent flow and quality standards to cover the market's needs. The modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) technique has evolved over the last two decades and many reports indicate its beneficial effect on many quality parameters during fish and shellfish preservation. The use of MAP can clearly offer an advantage to the safer distribution of quality aquacultured fishery products. This article summarizes most of the experimental data of packaging techniques applied (MAP, VP, various pretreatments and packaging materials) on aquacultured fish and fish products to provide a clear view of the potential for a future commercial use.

The Role of Auditing, Food Safety, and Food Quality Standards in the Food Industry: A Review.

Food safety and quality audits are used widely in the food industry for various reasons (to evaluate management systems, obtain certifications to certain food safety and quality standards, assess the condition of premises and products, confirm legal compliance, and so on). Nowadays, the increased interest of consumers on food safety and quality matters, triggered mainly by recent food scandals, has enabled the public and private food sectors to develop a variety of food safety and quality standards. These standards have both advantages and disadvantages and their effectiveness depends on several factors such as the competency and skills of auditors and the standard used in each case. Although the industry continuously invests in developing and improving these systems, the number of foodborne outbreaks per year appears to be quite stable in both Europe and the United States. This may be an indication that additional measures and techniques or a different approach would be required to further improve the effectiveness of the food safety and quality management systems. This article examines the role of audits and food safety and quality assessment systems in the food industry, presenting the results of several studies and briefly describing the main food safety and quality standards currently used in Europe (with particular emphasis on the United Kingdom and Greece), the U.S., Australia-New Zealand, and Asia.

Use of ultrasounds in the food industry-Methods and effects on quality, safety, and organoleptic characteristics of foods: A review.

The use of ultrasounds has recently gained significant interest in the food industry mainly due to the new trends of consumers toward functional foods. Offering several advantages, this form of energy can be applied for the improvement of qualitative characteristics of high-quality foods as well as for assuring safety of a vast variety of foodstuffs, and at the same time minimizing any negative effects of the sensory characteristics of foods. Furthermore, the non-destructive nature of this technology offers several opportunities for the compositional analysis of foods. However, further research is required for the improvement of related techniques and the reduction of application costs in order to render this technology efficient for industrial use. This review paper covers the main applications of ultrasounds as well as several advantages of the use of the technology in combination with conventional techniques. The effects of ultrasounds on the characteristics, microbial safety, and quality of several foods are also detailed.

Quality changes of cuttlefish stored under various atmosphere modifications and vacuum packaging.

BACKGROUND: Seafood preservation and its shelf life prolongation are two of the main issues in the seafood industry. As a result, and in view of market globalization, research has been triggered in this direction by applying several techniques such as modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), vacuum packaging (VP) and active packaging (AP). However, seafood such as octopus, cuttlefish and others have not been thoroughly investigated up to now. The aim of this research was to determine the optimal conditions of modified atmosphere under which cuttlefish storage time and consequently shelf life time could be prolonged without endangering consumer safety. RESULTS: It was found that cuttlefish shelf life reached 2, 2, 4, 8 and 8 days for control, VP, MAP 1, MAP 2 and MAP 3 (20% CO2 -80% N2 , 50% CO2 -50% N2 and 70% CO2 -30% N2 for MAP 1, 2 and 3, respectively) samples, respectively, judging by their sensorial attributes. Elevated CO2 levels had a strong microbiostatic effect, whereas storage under vacuum did not offer significant advantages. All physicochemical attributes of MAP-treated samples were better preserved compared to control. CONCLUSION: Application of high CO2 atmospheres such as MAP 2 and MAP 3 proved to be an effective strategy toward preserving the characteristics and prolonging the shelf life of fresh cuttlefish and thereby improving its potential in the market. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.

An Updated Review of Meat Authenticity Methods and Applications.

Adulteration of foods is a serious economic problem concerning most foodstuffs, and in particular meat products. Since high-priced meat demand premium prices, producers of meat-based products might be tempted to blend these products with lower cost meat. Moreover, the labeled meat contents may not be met. Both types of adulteration are difficult to detect and lead to deterioration of product quality. For the consumer, it is of outmost importance to guarantee both authenticity and compliance with product labeling. The purpose of this article is to review the state of the art of meat authenticity with analytical and immunochemical methods with the focus on the issue of geographic origin and sensory characteristics. This review is also intended to provide an overview of the various currently applied statistical analyses (multivariate analysis (MAV), such as principal component analysis, discriminant analysis, cluster analysis, etc.) and their effectiveness for meat authenticity.

Membrane processing technology in the food industry: food processing, wastewater treatment, and effects on physical, microbiological, organoleptic, and nutritional properties of foods.

Membrane processing technology (MPT) is increasingly used nowadays in a wide range of applications (demineralization, desalination, stabilization, separation, deacidification, reduction of microbial load, purification, etc.) in food industries. The most frequently applied techniques are electrodialysis (ED), reverse osmosis (RO), nanofiltration (NF), ultrafiltration (UF), and microfiltration (MF). Several membrane characteristics, such as pore size, flow properties, and the applied hydraulic pressure mainly determine membranes' potential uses. In this review paper the basic membrane techniques, their potential applications in a large number of fields and products towards the food industry, the main advantages and disadvantages of these methods, fouling phenomena as well as their effects on the organoleptic, qualitative, and nutritional value of foods are synoptically described. Some representative examples of traditional and modern membrane applications both in tabular and figural form are also provided.

Rapid detection of chemical hazards (toxins, dioxins, and PCBs) in seafood.

Among the various hazards occurring in fish and seafood chemical hazards and in particular toxins (ciguatera, scombroid fish poisoning, paralytic shellfish poisoning, neurotoxic (brevetoxic) shellfish poisoning, puffer fish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning) have an important place in food poisoning cases. On the other hand, some of the chemical hazards are often due to the pollution of the environment (heavy metals, dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls, and halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons) and their detection is neither rapid nor facile. As a result there was a great need for developing new rapid and effective methods toward the chemical hazards determination mainly because of their high toxicity. The aim of this review is to provide the information about the new up-to-date detection techniques (Immunological, Chemical and Biochemical, and Molecular assays) in conjunction with detection limits. The latter is made possible by means of inclusion of seven comprehensive and, in most case cases, very extended tables. A reference is also made on the risk characterization of toxins as regards their importance to food contamination or poisoning.

Life Cycle Assessment (ISO 14040) implementation in foods of animal and plant origin: review.

The importance of environmental protection has been recently upgraded due to the continuously increasing environmental pollution load. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), wellknown as ISO 14040, has been repeatedly shown to be a useful and powerful tool for assessing the environmental performance of industrial processes, both in the European and American continents as well as in many Asian countries (such as Japan and China). To the best of our knowledge, almost no information is provided in relation to LCA implementation in Africa apart from an article related to Egypt. Although food industries are not considered to be among the most heavily polluting ones, for some like olive oil, wine, dairy, and meat processing, their impact on the environment is a heavy burden. The introduction of LCA aimed at identifying both inputs and outputs to find out which are the most detrimental to the environment in terms of water/energy consumption and solid/liquid and gas releases. In this review, a thorough coverage of literature was made in an attempt to compare the implementation of LCA to a variety of products of both plant and animal origin. It was concluded that there is a high number of subsystems suggested for the same product, thereby, occasionally leading to confusion. An idea toward solving the problem is to proceed to some sort of standardization by means of several generic case studies of LCA implementation, similarly to what had happened in the case of Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) implementation in the United States, Canada, Australia, United Kingdom, and other countries.

Acrylamide: formation, occurrence in food products, detection methods, and legislation.

This review aims at summarizing the most recent updates in the field of acrylamide (AA) formation (mechanism, conditions) and the determination of AA in a number of foods (fried or baked potatoes, chips, coffee, bread, etc). The methods applied for AA detection [Capillary Electrophoresis-Mass Spectrometry (CE-MS), Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS), Non-Aqueous Capillary Electrophoresis (NACE), High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (HPLC-MS), Pressurized Fluid Extraction (PFE), Matrix Solid-Phase Dispersion (MSPD), Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), Solid-Phase MicroExtraction-Gas Chromatography (SPME-GC), Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), and MicroEmulsion ElectroKinetic Chromatography (MEEKC) are presented and commented. Several informative figures and tables are included to show the effect of conditions (temperature, time) on the AA formation. A section is also included related to AA legislation in EU and US.

Microbial and sensory quality of "Lollo verde" lettuce and rocket salad stored under active atmosphere packaging.

Samples of fresh rocket "Eruca Sativa" were stored either alone or with the addition of lettuce "Lollo verde" leaves under two different atmosphere modifications (5% O(2) and 10% CO(2) for MAP A and 2% O(2) and 5% CO(2) for MAP B). Throughout the storage period of 10 days the microbial (mesophilic, psychrotrophic bacteria and Enterobacteriacae) populations, firmness, color and organoleptic parameters were monitored. Elevated CO(2) levels created by both atmosphere modifications inhibited mesophile and psychrophile growth (p < 0.05). Color was better maintained in MAP samples. Shelf life of rocket leaves was extended by 4 days under MAP A while mixed salads shelf life was limited to 9 days.

Study of the effect of atmosphere modification in conjunction with honey on the extent of shelf life of Greek bakery delicacy "touloumpaki".

The aim of the present work was to evaluate the effect of atmosphere modification on microbial (mesophiles, yeast and molds) qualities, color, pH, texture and water activity of the Greek bakery product "touloumpaki". Samples were stored under MAP (60% CO(2)) either alone or with the addition of honey syrup for 16 days at room temperature (22-24 °C). Texture was better maintained under MAP and the addition of honey prevented the increase of shear force needed (1.498 and 3.20 for samples with and without honey). Honey inhibited the growth of yeasts on samples stored under MAP (1.6 and 2.02 log CFU/g for samples under MAP with and without honey respectively) while multivariant analysis showed that MAP and honey acted synergistically in confining yeasts. Presence of honey restrained the mesophilic growth until the end of storage period (5.21 and 4.29 log CFU/g for MAP and control samples respectively) while MAP did not have any beneficial effect. Water activity (a(W) < 0.754) was strongly associated with reduced mesophile growth. Lightness values showed a significant decrease during time with no significant changes among treatments in both internal layers and external surface of the product.

Effect of three MAP compositions on the physical and microbiological properties of a low fat Greek cheese known as "Anthotyros".

Anthotyros is a type of low fat cheese produced from a mixture of sheep and goat milk. Anthotyros cheese in Crete is produced from the whey of hard cheese such as kefalotyri and graviera. Anthotyros is a cheese which comes from the myzithra cheese (whey) dehydration. The dehydrated anthotyros' physicochemical properties are moisture content of 35%, fat content in dry matter of 55% and low concentration of salt. The purpose of this study was to identify which of the three gas compositions applied; MAP(1):40% CO(2), 55% N(2), 5% O(2), MAP(2): 60% CO(2), 40% N(2) and MAP(3): 50% CO(2), 50% N(2) can lead to greater shelf life prolongation of anthotyros. The control samples were packaged in air. All cheese samples were kept under refrigeration (4 ± 0.5 °C) for 55 days. The statistical analysis of organoleptic characteristics was carried out by using the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) by means of JMP5.0.1.

Study of changes in physicochemical and microbiological characteristics of shrimps (Melicertus kerathurus) stored under modified atmosphere packaging.

Fresh minimally processed shrimps were stored under modified atmosphere packaging (60% CO(2):40% N(2) for MAP A and 92.9% N(2):5.1% CO(2):2% O(2) for MAP B) for 5 days at 3 °C. Total mesophiles, H(2)S forming bacteria, Pseudomonas spp., Brochothrix thermosphacta, firmness, color and sensory parameters were investigated throughout the whole time of the experiment. During storage period samples stored under MAP B managed to retain firmness values close to the initial values. All microbial populations growth was suppressed by the presence of MAP A. Samples stored under MAP B managed to maintain their firmness values close to the initial ones while MAP A samples were significantly less firm (p < 0.05).

The effect of addition of olive oil and "Aceto balsamico di Modena" wine vinegar in conjunction with active atmosphere packaging on the microbial and sensory quality of "Lollo Verde" lettuce and rocket salad.

Fresh rocket "Eruca Sativa" and lettuce "Lollo Verde" leaves were stored with the addition of olive oil and wine vinegar "Aceto balsamico di Modena" under modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) (5% O(2)/10% CO(2)/85% N(2) for MAP A and 2% O(2)/5% CO(2)/93% N(2) for MAP B). The microbial (mesophilic, psychrotrophic bacteria and Enterobacteriacae), physical (color and firmness) and sensory parameters of samples were studied in relation to storage time (up to 10 days at 5 ± 1 °C). The effect of wine vinegar and the application of both MAP treatments reduced the growth of all bacteria populations (p < 0.05). Samples with olive oil stored under MAP A gave the best score for overall impression (3 and 2.1 for MAP A and B respectively at the 9th day of storage) while the addition of vinegar limited sensory shelf-life to 3 days (p < 0.05). Firmness was negatively affected by wine vinegar while samples with olive oil stored under MAP A maintained firmness close to normal. Color attributes were maintained better under both MAP treatments (p < 0.05).

Effect of several MAP compositions on the microbiological and sensory properties of Graviera cheese.

The shelf life of Graviera cheese, a full fat cheese produced in Heraklion (Crete Greece), was investigated. Graviera cheese was stored at 4°C for up to 90 days in polyamide packages under three different modified atmosphere compositions. Control cheeses were packaged in air whereas MAP mixtures were MAP(1): 40% CO(2)/55% N(2)/5% O(2), MAP(2): 60% CO(2)/40% N(2) and MAP(3): 50% CO(2)/50% N(2). Sampling of product was carried out every 10 days to investigate its sensory quality and microbiological characteristics. Ten trained panelists participated in the sensory panel to evaluate the cheeses for external appearance (color, texture), taste, and flavor in a scale from 1 to 10 (1 very poor, 10 very good). The microbiological analysis revealed that there were no colonies of Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes whereas both Escherichia coli and Total Viable Counts (TVC) increased strongly in control samples but were inhibited under all MAP compositions.

State of the art: public health and passenger ships.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this report is to describe issues relevant to public health and to review all passenger ship associated diseases and outbreaks. Moreover, legislation and practices on sanitation and diseases surveillance related to ships internationally were also reviewed. Some relevant historical information about infections on merchant ships is provided as well. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The methods used to develop the state-of-the-art report included a scientific literature review and an extensive and thorough search of the websites of organisations and government departments. A considerable effort was made to capitalise on previous experience in the field. In particular, for the literature review, a total of 158 scientific articles were used including 91 full papers and 67 abstracts, 7 guidelines published by the WHO, and 13 guideline documents published by other organisations. Moreover, 5 international conventions relevant to passenger ships were identified. RESULTS: At the international level, public health issues related to ships are regulated by the revised International Health Regulations (2005). Other conventions of the International Maritime Organization regulate safety on board ships and waste and ballast water management, while conventions of the International Labour Organization regulates issues related to working conditions on board ships. Guidelines for preventing and controlling public health threats on board ships can be found in seven Guidelines published by the World Health Organization, including the WHO Guide to Ship Sanitation, which provides a framework for policy making and local decision making. The literature review results revealed that the infections/outbreaks that occur on passenger ships include Norovirus, Legionella spp., Salmonella spp., E. coli, Vibrio spp., and influenza A and B virus. The modes of transmission include person to person, waterborne, foodborne, airborne, and vector-borne, and shore excursions are responsible for some outbreaks. CONCLUSIONS: The industry (especially the ferry industry) and sanitary organisations can enhance collaboration in order to implement integrated hygiene programmes and prevent the occurrence of communicable diseases aboard passenger ships.

EU legislation on food and potable water safety which could be potentially applied on board ferries and cruise ships: a comparison with US legislation.

The high number of people moving around by ferries and cruise ships in conjunction with great amounts of food and potable water transported (occasionally overloaded) and consumed by passengers constitute a possible risk for communicable diseases. Another issue of equally great importance is the food handlers who come from diverse origin and have a different mentality, habits, and background. In this paper an attempt is made to present comparatively EU and US legislation that could be potentially applicable to passenger ships food premises and potable water supplies. Moreover, food and water related hazards, not currently covered by EU legislation, were assessed together with US legislation and other guidelines for cruise ships.

Reliability and maintainability analysis of bread production line.

The statistical analysis of the bread production line of the failure and repair data at machine and line levels was displayed. The experiment covers a period of twenty-five months. The best fit of the failure data between the common theoretical distributions was found and its parameters were computed. The reliability and hazard rate modes for all machines and the entire production line were calculated as well. The models could prove to be a useful tool to assess the current conditions, and to predict the reliability for upgrading the maintenance policy of the production line. It was pointed out that (a) the availability of the bread production line is 90.74% and went down to 86.76% because the equipment's failures cause an additional production gap in the line, (b) the 53.5% of all failures occurred at the bread machine, cooling tower machine, and volumetric-divider machine, and (c) the machines of the bread production line that displayed increasing hazard rate functions were identified. This analysis will be very useful in terms of identifying the occurring and latent problems in manufacturing process of bread and improve it.

Application of Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) and cause and effect analysis in conjunction with ISO 22000 to a snails (Helix aspersa) processing plant; A case study.

Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) has been applied for the risk assessment of snails manufacturing. A tentative approach of FMEA application to the snails industry was attempted in conjunction with ISO 22000. Preliminary Hazard Analysis was used to analyze and predict the occurring failure modes in a food chain system (snails processing plant), based on the functions, characteristics, and/or interactions of the ingredients or the processes, upon which the system depends. Critical Control points have been identified and implemented in the cause and effect diagram (also known as Ishikawa, tree diagram, and fishbone diagram). In this work a comparison of ISO22000 analysis with HACCP is carried out over snails processing and packaging. However, the main emphasis was put on the quantification of risk assessment by determining the RPN per identified processing hazard. Sterilization of tins, bioaccumulation of heavy metals, packaging of shells and poisonous mushrooms, were the processes identified as the ones with the highest RPN (280, 240, 147, 144, respectively) and corrective actions were undertaken. Following the application of corrective actions, a second calculation of RPN values was carried out leading to considerably lower values (below the upper acceptable limit of 130). It is noteworthy that the application of Ishikawa (Cause and Effect or Tree diagram) led to converging results thus corroborating the validity of conclusions derived from risk assessment and FMEA. Therefore, the incorporation of FMEA analysis within the ISO22000 system of a snails processing industry is considered imperative.