Empirical legal analysis simplified: reducing complexity through automatic identification and evaluation of legally relevant factors.

This paper investigates the potential for reducing the complexity of AI and Law and empirical legal studies projects through a novel annotation methodology that relies on GPT Family Models to assist human annotators. Improving the speed, cost and quality of annotation could greatly benefit such projects. In modelling types of legal claims, researchers in the fields of empirical legal studies and AI and Law have long relied on manually annotating factors in case texts. To demonstrate our methodology, we employ cases and factors regarding whether a police officer has constitutional authority to detain a motorist on the basis of the officer's suspicion that the motorist is trafficking drugs. Our results demonstrate how recent advances in text analytics can reduce the burden of identifying factors in large numbers of cases and improve machine learning models' predictions of case outcomes. This article is part of the theme issue 'A complexity science approach to law and governance'.

The unreasonable effectiveness of large language models in zero-shot semantic annotation of legal texts.

The emergence of ChatGPT has sensitized the general public, including the legal profession, to large language models' (LLMs) potential uses (e.g., document drafting, question answering, and summarization). Although recent studies have shown how well the technology performs in diverse semantic annotation tasks focused on legal texts, an influx of newer, more capable (GPT-4) or cost-effective (GPT-3.5-turbo) models requires another analysis. This paper addresses recent developments in the ability of LLMs to semantically annotate legal texts in zero-shot learning settings. Given the transition to mature generative AI systems, we examine the performance of GPT-4 and GPT-3.5-turbo(-16k), comparing it to the previous generation of GPT models, on three legal text annotation tasks involving diverse documents such as adjudicatory opinions, contractual clauses, or statutory provisions. We also compare the models' performance and cost to better understand the trade-offs. We found that the GPT-4 model clearly outperforms the GPT-3.5 models on two of the three tasks. The cost-effective GPT-3.5-turbo matches the performance of the 20× more expensive text-davinci-003 model. While one can annotate multiple data points within a single prompt, the performance degrades as the size of the batch increases. This work provides valuable information relevant for many practical applications (e.g., in contract review) and research projects (e.g., in empirical legal studies). Legal scholars and practicing lawyers alike can leverage these findings to guide their decisions in integrating LLMs in a wide range of workflows involving semantic annotation of legal texts.

Factors related to retention in a longitudinal study of infants at familial risk for autism.

Background: Reporting retention data is critical to determining the soundness of a study's conclusions (internal validity) and broader generalizability (external validity). Although selective attrition can lead to overestimates of effects, biased conclusions, or overly expansive generalizations, retention rates are not reported in many longitudinal studies. Methods: We examined multiple child- and family-level factors potentially associated with retention in a longitudinal study of younger siblings of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD; n = 304) or typical development (n = 163). The sample was followed from the first year of life to 36 months of age, for up to 7 visits. Results: Of the 467 infant siblings who were consented and participated in at least one research visit, 397 (85.0%) were retained to study completion at 36 months. Retention rates did not differ by familial risk group (ASD-risk vs. Low-risk), sex, race, ethnicity, age at enrollment, number of children in the family, maternal employment, marital status, or parent concerns about the child at enrollment. A stepwise regression model identified 4 variables that, together, provided the most parsimonious predictive model of study retention: maternal education, maternal age at child's birth, travel distance to the study site, and diagnostic outcome classification at the final study visit. Conclusions: The retained and not-retained groups did not differ on most demographic and clinical variables, suggesting few threats to internal and external validity. The significantly higher rate of retention of children diagnosed with ASD (95%) than typically developing children (83%) may, however, present biases when studying recurrence risk. We conclude by describing engagement and tracking methods that can be used to maximize retention in longitudinal studies of children at risk of ASD.

FAIR4Health: Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable data to foster Health Research.

Due to the nature of health data, its sharing and reuse for research are limited by ethical, legal and technical barriers. The FAIR4Health project facilitated and promoted the application of FAIR principles in health research data, derived from the publicly funded health research initiatives to make them Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable (FAIR). To confirm the feasibility of the FAIR4Health solution, we performed two pathfinder case studies to carry out federated machine learning algorithms on FAIRified datasets from five health research organizations. The case studies demonstrated the potential impact of the developed FAIR4Health solution on health outcomes and social care research. Finally, we promoted the FAIRified data to share and reuse in the European Union Health Research community, defining an effective EU-wide strategy for the use of FAIR principles in health research and preparing the ground for a roadmap for health research institutions. This scientific report presents a general overview of the FAIR4Health solution: from the FAIRification workflow design to translate raw data/metadata to FAIR data/metadata in the health research domain to the FAIR4Health demonstrators' performance.

Onset, Trajectory, and Pattern of Feeding Difficulties in Toddlers Later Diagnosed with Autism.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the emergence and trajectory of feeding difficulties in young children who are later diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). METHODS: The Behavioral Pediatrics Feeding Assessment Scale (BPFAS) was administered to a sample of 93 toddlers with an older sibling with ASD-the high-risk group-and 62 toddlers with no known familial ASD-the low-risk group-as part of a larger infant sibling study. The BPFAS was completed by parents at 15, 18, 24, and 36 months of age. At 36 months, participants underwent a diagnostic assessment and were classified into 1 of the following 4 outcome groups: ASD, nontypical development, high-risk typically developing, and low-risk typically developing. The BPFAS was scored for total frequency of feeding difficulties and autism-specific factor scores previously described in the literature. RESULTS: The frequency of feeding difficulties increased significantly more rapidly in the ASD group between 15 and 36 months of age, and by 36 months, they exhibited a significantly higher total frequency score than all other groups. Analysis of the factor scores revealed a similar pattern for the food acceptance and mealtime behavior domains but no significant differences in the medical/oral motor domain. CONCLUSION: Feeding difficulties develop significantly more rapidly in children with ASD, with longitudinal monitoring revealing the steeper trajectory earlier than can be detected with cross-sectional analysis. Children with ASD are at risk of health and social consequences of poor feeding behavior that may potentially be minimized if addressed early and appropriately.

Comparison of Microwave-Assisted Digestion and Consensus Open-Vessel Digestion Procedures for Evaluation of Metalliferous Airborne Particulate Matter.

Metal occupational exposure limits mainly focus on total content of the respective metals of interest. The methods applied for trace metal analysis in occupational health and safety laboratories are usually standardized to pragmatic consensus digestion schemes, ensuring comparability of results. The objective of the present study entailed the evaluation of a recently developed HNO3-only microwave-assisted digestion procedure by comparison with the German consensus hot-block digestion and other national digestion schemes. An inter-laboratory comparison test with participation of nine national occupational health and safety laboratories from Europe and North America was organized. For adequate emulation of what workers are at risk of inhaling four different industrial metal processing workplace dusts (electronic recycling, high-speed steel grinding, cylinder head cleaning, and battery combustion ash) were homogenized and sieved to the particle size < 100 µm diameter at IFA. The participants were asked to process air sample-typical amounts according to the German hot-plate technique, the IFA microwave-assisted digestion scheme as well as their national or in-house conventional digestion method for airborne dust and analyze for Cd, Co, Cr, Co, Fe, Mg, Ni, Pb, and Zn. Recoveries (relative to consensus open-vessel digestion) obtained for the new IFA microwave-assisted digestion were between 88 and 114% and relative reproducibility standard deviations were <10% for most metals of interest. The in-house digestion procedures applied varied widely but (whether microwave, hot block, or open vessel) yielded comparable results for the predominantly elemental alloy type dusts supplied. Results become more diverse for the combustion dust, especially if a combination of microwave-assisted digestion procedures with high temperatures and hydrofluoric acid is applied. ISO 15202-2 is currently being revised; this digestion procedure will be included as a possible variant in annex 2.

Evaluation of a 25-mm disposable sampler relative to the inhalable aerosol convention.

An ideal inhalable aerosol sampler for occupational exposure monitoring would have a sampling efficiency that perfectly matches the inhalable particulate matter (IPM) criterion. Two common aerosol samplers in use worldwide are the closed-face cassette (CFC) and the Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM) sampler. However, the CFC is known to under-sample, with near zero sampling efficiency for particles >30 µm, whereas the IOM, considered by many to be the "gold standard" in inhalable samplers, has been shown to over-sample particles >60 µm. A new sampler in development incorporates characteristics of both the CFC and the IOM. Like the CFC, it would be disposable, have a simple design, and is intended to be oriented at a 45° downward angle. Like the IOM, the new sampler has a 15-mm inlet diameter and incorporates a 25-mm filter cassette with a protruding lip. The IOM is oriented at 0° to the horizontal, so it is hypothesized that orienting the new sampler at ∼45° downward angle will reduce oversampling of larger particles. In comparison, the CFC's inlet diameter is 4 mm; increasing the size of the inlet should allow the new sampler to have an increased efficiency relative to the CFC for all particles. A unique characteristic of the new sampler is the incorporation of a one-piece capsule-style filter that mimics the IOM's cassette but is made of disposable material. Seven different sizes of alumina particles (mean aerodynamic diameters from 4.9-62.4 µm) were tested (total = 124 samples collected). For each test, six samplers were placed on a manikin located inside a wind tunnel operated at 0.2 m/sec. Results indicated that the new sampler improved on the CFC for smaller particles, providing a larger range for which it matches the IPM criterion, up to 44.3 µm. However, the efficiency was significantly lower in comparison to the IPM criterion for particle sizes above 60 µm. Overall, the new sampler showed promise, but additional modifications may help improve sampling efficiency for larger particles.

Analysis of Crystalline Silica Aerosol Using Portable Raman Spectrometry: Feasibility of Near Real-Time Measurement.

A Raman spectroscopy based method has been developed for measurement of trace airborne concentrations of respirable crystalline silica (RCS) using various aerosol sampling and analysis techniques. Three aerosol microconcentration techniques were investigated for effective coupling of collected particulate samples with micro-Raman spectroscopy: (i) direct analysis on a particulate filter after focused aerosol collection using a converging nozzle; (ii) analysis of dried particulate deposit on a filter obtained directly from the aerosol phase using the Spotsampler device; and (iii) analysis of a dried spot (∼1-3 mm diameter) obtained by redepositing the particulate sample, after low-temperature plasma ashing of the filter sample. The deposition characteristics (i.e., spot diameter, shape, and deposit uniformity) of each technique were investigated. Calibration curves were constructed and detection limits were estimated for α-quartz using the A1 Raman Si-O-Si stretching-bending phonon mode at 465 cm-1. The measurement sensitivity could be substantially improved by increasing the signal integration time and by reducing the particle deposition area. Detection limits in the range of 8-55 ng could be achieved by microconcentrating the aerosol sample over a spot measuring 400-1000 µm in diameter. These detection limits were two to three orders of magnitude lower compared to those attainable using current standardized X-ray diffraction and infrared spectroscopy methods. The low detection limits suggest that near real-time measurements of RCS could be achieved with limits of quantification ranging from 2 to 18.5 µg/m3 (at 10 min collection time and 1.2 L/min sampling flow rate), depending on microconcentration technique used. The method was successfully extended to the measurement of α-quartz air concentration in representative workplace aerosol samples. This study demonstrates the potential of portable micro-Raman spectroscopy for near-real time measurement of trace RCS in air.

Measurement of Crystalline Silica Aerosol Using Quantum Cascade Laser-Based Infrared Spectroscopy.

Inhalation exposure to airborne respirable crystalline silica (RCS) poses major health risks in many industrial environments. There is a need for new sensitive instruments and methods for in-field or near real-time measurement of crystalline silica aerosol. The objective of this study was to develop an approach, using quantum cascade laser (QCL)-based infrared spectroscopy (IR), to quantify airborne concentrations of RCS. Three sampling methods were investigated for their potential for effective coupling with QCL-based transmittance measurements: (i) conventional aerosol filter collection, (ii) focused spot sample collection directly from the aerosol phase, and (iii) dried spot obtained from deposition of liquid suspensions. Spectral analysis methods were developed to obtain IR spectra from the collected particulate samples in the range 750-1030 cm-1. The new instrument was calibrated and the results were compared with standardized methods based on Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometry. Results show that significantly lower detection limits for RCS (≈330 ng), compared to conventional infrared methods, could be achieved with effective microconcentration and careful coupling of the particulate sample with the QCL beam. These results offer promise for further development of sensitive filter-based laboratory methods and portable sensors for near real-time measurement of crystalline silica aerosol.

Optical molecular fluorescence determination of ultra-trace beryllium in occupational and environmental samples using highly alkaline conditions.

Exposures to beryllium (Be), even at extremely low levels, can cause severe health effects in a percentage of those exposed; consequently, occupational exposure limits (OELs) promulgated for this element are the lowest established for any element. This work describes the advantages of using highly alkaline dye solutions for determination of Be in occupational hygiene and environmental samples by means of an optical molecular fluorescence technique after sample extraction in 1-3% (w˖w-1) aqueous ammonium bifluoride (NH4HF2). Improved attributes include the ability to further enhance the detection limits of Be in extraction solutions of high acidity with minimal dilution, which is particularly beneficial when NH4HF2 solutions of higher concentration are used for extraction of Be from soil samples. Significant improvements in Be method detection limits (MDLs) are obtained at levels many-fold below those reported previously for this methodology. Notably, MDLs for Be of <0.01 ng l-1 / 0.1 ng per sample have been attained, which are superior to MDLs routinely reported for this element by means of the most widely used ultra-trace elemental measurement technique, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Very low MDLs for Be are essential in consideration of reductions in OELs for this element in workplace air by health organizations and regulatory agencies in the USA and internationally. Applications of enhanced Be measurements to air filter samples, surface wipe samples, soils and newly-designed occupational air sampler inserts are illustrated.

Exploring Manganese Fractionation Using a Sequential Extraction Method to Evaluate Welders' Gas Metal Arc Welding Exposures during Heavy Equipment Manufacturing.

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has conducted an occupational exposure assessment study of manganese (Mn) in welding fume at three factories where heavy equipment was manufactured. The objective of this study was to evaluate exposures to different Mn fractions using a sequential extraction procedure. One hundred nine worker-days were monitored for either total or respirable Mn during gas metal arc welding. The samples were analyzed using an experimental method to separate different Mn fractions based on selective chemical solubility. The full-shift total particle size Mn time-weighted average (TWA) breathing zone concentrations ranged 0.38-26 for soluble Mn in a mild ammonium acetate solution; 3.2-170 for Mn0,2+ in acetic acid; 3.1-290 for Mn3+,4+ in hydroxylamine-hydrochloride; and non-detectable (ND)-130 µg m-3 for insoluble Mn fractions in hydrochloric and nitric acid. The summation of all the total particulate Mn TWA fractions yielded results that ranged from 6.9 to 610 µg m-3. The range of respirable size Mn TWA concentrations were 0.33-21 for soluble Mn; 15-140 for Mn0,2+; 14-170 for Mn3+,4+; 5.3-230 for insoluble Mn; and 36-530 µg m-3 for Mn (sum of fractions). Total particulate TWA GM concentrations of the Mn (sum) were 53 (GSD = 2.5), 150 (GSD = 1.7), and 120 (GSD = 1.8) µg m-3 for the three separate factories. Although all of the workers' exposures were measured below the OSHA regulatory permissible exposure limit and NIOSH recommended exposure limit for Mn, 70 welders' exposures exceeded the ACGIH Threshold Limit Values® for total Mn (100 µg m-3) and 29 exceeded the recently adopted respirable Mn TLV (20 µg m-3). This study shows that a welding fume exposure control and management program is warranted for Mn, which includes improved exhaust ventilation and may necessitate the use of respiratory protection, especially for welding parts that impede air circulation.

Interlaboratory evaluation of cellulosic acid-soluble internal air sampling capsules for multi-element analysis.

An interlaboratory study was carried out to evaluate the use of acid-soluble cellulosic air sampling capsules for their suitability in the measurement of trace elements in workplace atmospheric samples. These capsules are used as inserts to perform closed-face cassette sample collection for occupational exposure monitoring. The interlaboratory study was performed in accordance with NIOSH guidelines that describe statistical procedures for evaluating measurement accuracy of air monitoring methods. The performance evaluation materials used consisted of cellulose acetate capsules melded to mixed-cellulose ester filters that were dosed with multiple elements from commercial standard aqueous solutions. The cellulosic capsules were spiked with the following 33 elements of interest in workplace air monitoring: Ag, Al, As, Ba, Be, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, In, K, La, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, Ni, P, Pb, Sb, Se, Sn, Sr, Te, Ti, Tl, V, W, Y, Zn, Zr. The elemental loading levels were certified by an accredited provider of certified reference materials. Triplicates of media blanks and multielement-spiked capsules at three different elemental loadings were sent to each participating laboratory; the elemental loading levels were not revealed to the laboratories. The volunteer participating laboratories were asked to prepare the samples by acid dissolution and to analyze aliquots of extracted samples by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry in accordance with NIOSH methods. It was requested that the study participants report their analytical results in units of µg of each target element per internal capsule sample. For the majority of the elements investigated (30 out of 33), the study accuracy estimates obtained satisfied the NIOSH accuracy criterion (A < 25%). This investigation demonstrates the utility of acid-soluble internal sampling capsules for multielement analysis by atomic spectrometry.

Manganese speciation of laboratory-generated welding fumes.

The objective of this laboratory study was to identify and measure manganese (Mn) fractions in chamber-generated welding fumes (WF) and to evaluate and compare the results from a sequential extraction procedure for Mn fractions with that of an acid digestion procedure for measurement of total, elemental Mn. To prepare Mn-containing particulate matter from representative welding processes, a welding system was operated in short circuit gas metal arc welding (GMAW) mode using both stainless steel (SS) and mild carbon steel (MCS) and also with flux cored arc welding (FCAW) and shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) using MCS. Generated WF samples were collected onto polycarbonate filters before homogenization, weighing and storage in scintillation vials. The extraction procedure consisted of four sequential steps to measure various Mn fractions based upon selective solubility: (1) soluble Mn dissolved in 0.01 M ammonium acetate; (2) Mn (0,II) dissolved in 25 % (v/v) acetic acid; (3) Mn (III,IV) dissolved in 0.5% (w/v) hydroxylamine hydrochloride in 25% (v/v) acetic acid; and (4) insoluble Mn extracted with concentrated hydrochloric and nitric acids. After sample treatment, the four fractions were analyzed for Mn by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES). WF from GMAW and FCAW showed similar distributions of Mn species, with the largest concentrations of Mn detected in the Mn (0,II) and insoluble Mn fractions. On the other hand, the majority of the Mn content of SMAW fume was detected as Mn (III,IV). Although the concentration of Mn measured from summation of the four sequential steps was statistically significantly different from that measured from the hot block dissolution method for total Mn, the difference is small enough to be of no practical importance for industrial hygiene air samples, and either method may be used for Mn measurement. The sequential extraction method provides valuable information about the oxidation state of Mn in samples and allows for comparison to results from previous work and from total Mn dissolution methods.

NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods 5th Edition and Harmonization of Occupational Exposure Monitoring.

The NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods (NMAM: www.cdc.gov/niosh/nmam) is a collection of methods for sampling and analysis of contaminants in workplace air (or surfaces) and in the blood and urine of workers who are occupationally exposed. NIOSH methods are used worldwide for occupational exposure assessment to chemical and biological agents. These methods have been developed or adapted by NIOSH and/or its partners and have been evaluated according to established experimental protocols and performance criteria. NMAM also includes associated chapters on quality assurance, sampling guidance, instrumentation, aerosol measurement, gas and vapor monitoring, portable monitoring devices, and so forth. Often NIOSH methods are developed in coordination with voluntary consensus standards organizations such as ASTM International, the Comité Européen de Normalisation (European Committee for Standardization, CEN) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Efforts to harmonize NIOSH methods with relevant consensus standards procedures are of particular interest and are highlighted. NIOSH also has a formal Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with the Institut für Arbeitsschutz der Deutschen Geseltzlichen Unfallversicherung (Institute for Occupational Safety and Health of the German Social Accident Insurances, IFA), whereby NIOSH is adopting selected IFA methods and vice-versa. An overview of recent research and technology transfer activities relating to NMAM methods is provided, with selected examples in applications to exposure science, notably workplace air monitoring. Included in the discussion are newly approved methods and those under development, as well as needs for new methods and updates. Of particular interest are recent NIOSH recommendations and associated research on air samplers used for sampling and analysis of airborne particles.

Manganese Fractionation Using a Sequential Extraction Method to Evaluate Welders' Shielded Metal Arc Welding Exposures During Construction Projects in Oil Refineries.

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has conducted an occupational exposure assessment study of manganese (Mn) in welding fume of construction workers rebuilding tanks, piping, and process equipment at two oil refineries. The objective of this study was to evaluate exposures to different Mn fractions using a sequential extraction procedure. Seventy-two worker-days were monitored for either total or respirable Mn during stick welding and associated activities both within and outside of confined spaces. The samples were analyzed using an experimental method to separate different Mn fractions by valence states based on selective chemical solubility. The full-shift total particulate Mn time-weighted average (TWA) breathing zone concentrations ranged from 0.013-29 for soluble Mn in a mild ammonium acetate solution; from 0.26-250 for Mn(0,2+) in acetic acid; from non-detectable (ND) - 350 for Mn(3+,4+) in hydroxylamine-hydrochloride; and from ND - 39 micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m(3)) for insoluble Mn fractions in hydrochloric and nitric acid. The summation of all Mn fractions in total particulate TWA ranged from 0.52-470 µg/m(3). The range of respirable particulate Mn TWA concentrations were from 0.20-28 for soluble Mn; from 1.4-270 for Mn(0,2+); from 0.49-150 for Mn(3+,4+); from ND - 100 for insoluble Mn; and from 2.0-490 µg/m(3) for Mn (sum of fractions). For all jobs combined, total particulate TWA GM concentrations of the Mn(sum) were 99 (GSD = 3.35) and 8.7 (GSD = 3.54) µg/m(3) for workers inside and outside of confined spaces; respirable Mn also showed much higher levels for welders within confined spaces. Regardless of particle size and confined space work status, Mn(0,2+) fraction was the most abundant followed by Mn(3+,4+) fraction, typically >50% and ∼30-40% of Mn(sum), respectively. Eighteen welders' exposures exceeded the ACGIH Threshold Limit Values for total Mn (100 µg/m(3)) and 25 exceeded the recently adopted respirable Mn TLV (20 µg/m(3)). This study shows that a welding fume exposure control and management program is warranted, especially for welding jobs in confined spaces.

Validity and reliability of an instrument for assessing case analyses in bioengineering ethics education.

Assessment in ethics education faces a challenge. From the perspectives of teachers, students, and third-party evaluators like the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology and the National Institutes of Health, assessment of student performance is essential. Because of the complexity of ethical case analysis, however, it is difficult to formulate assessment criteria, and to recognize when students fulfill them. Improvement in students' moral reasoning skills can serve as the focus of assessment. In previous work, Rosa Lynn Pinkus and Claire Gloeckner developed a novel instrument for assessing moral reasoning skills in bioengineering ethics. In this paper, we compare that approach to existing assessment techniques, and evaluate its validity and reliability. We find that it is sensitive to knowledge gain and that independent coders agree on how to apply it.