Folate and synthetic folic acid content in Canadian fortified foods two decades after mandatory fortification.

In 1998, Health Canada mandated folic acid fortification of white flour and enriched grain products to prevent neural tube defects. At the time, neither the Canadian Nutrient File (CNF) nor product labels reflected the actual folate content of foods. We aimed to assess if 20 years post-fortification, the CNF values for total folate and synthetic folic acid accurately reflect amounts determined by direct analysis. Using the 2001 Food Expenditure Survey and ACNielsen Company data, we identified 10-15 of the most purchased fortified foods across seven food categories in Canada. Total folate concentrations were determined by tri-enzyme digestion and microbial assay. Folic acid concentrations were determined using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Except for "cooked pastas", mean total folate content of foods (n = 89) were significantly higher than CNF values across categories (p < 0.05), reflecting 167% ± 54% of CNF values. Similarly, mean folic acid content of foods was higher than CNF values for all categories except "cooked pastas" (p < 0.05), with a mean of 188% ± 94% of CNF values; the latter CNF values included uncooked pasta. In sum, 20 years post-fortification, and 10 years since the last direct measurement, CNF and product label values still underestimate actual total folate and the folic acid content of foods. These findings emphasize that dietary estimates established using the CNF may significantly underestimate actual intakes and thus caution should be exercised when interpreting estimates of nutritional adequacy based on these values.

Low-dose daily folic acid (400 µg) supplementation does not affect regulation of folate transporters found present throughout the terminal ileum and colon of humans: a randomized clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Folic acid supplementation during the periconceptional period reduces the risk of neural tube defects in infants, but concern over chronic folic acid exposure remains. An improved understanding of folate absorption may clarify potential risks. Folate transporters have been characterized in the small intestine, but less so in the colon of healthy, free-living humans. The impact of folic acid fortification or supplementation on regulation of these transporters along the intestinal tract is unknown. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to characterize expression of folate transporters/receptor (FT/R) and folate hydrolase, glutamate carboxypeptidase II (GCPII), from the terminal ileum and throughout the colon of adults and assess the impact of supplemental folic acid. METHODS: In this 16-wk open-labeled randomized clinical trial, adults consumed a low folic acid-containing diet, a folate-free multivitamin, and either a 400 µg folic acid supplement or no folic acid supplement. Dietary intakes and blood were assessed at baseline, 8 wk, and 16 wk (time of colonoscopy). Messenger RNA (mRNA) expression and protein expression of FT/R and GCPII were assessed in the terminal ileum, cecum, and ascending and descending colon. RESULTS: Among 24 randomly assigned subjects, no differences in dietary folate intake or blood folate were observed at baseline. Mean ± SD red blood cell folate at 16 wk was 1765 ± 426 and 911 ± 242 nmol/L in the 400 and 0 µg folic acid group, respectively (P < 0.0001). Reduced folate carrier, proton-coupled folate transporter, and folate-receptor alpha expression were detected in the terminal ileum and colon, as were efflux transporters of breast cancer resistance protein and multidrug resistance protein-3. Other than a higher mRNA expression of FR-alpha and GCPII in the 400 µg supplement group in the ascending colon, no treatment differences were observed (P < 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: Folate transporters are present throughout the terminal ileum and colon; there is little evidence that a low dose of folic acid supplementation affects colonic absorption. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03421483.

Maternal Late-Pregnancy Serum Unmetabolized Folic Acid Concentrations Are Not Associated with Infant Allergic Disease: A Prospective Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: The increase in childhood allergic disease in recent decades has coincided with increased folic acid intakes during pregnancy. Circulating unmetabolized folic acid (UMFA) has been proposed as a biomarker of excessive folic acid intake. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to determine if late-pregnancy serum UMFA and total folate concentrations were associated with allergic disease risk in the offspring at 1 y of age in a population at high risk of allergy. METHODS: The cohort consisted of 561 mother-infant pairs from Western Australia. To be eligible the infant had to have a first-degree relative (mother, father, or sibling) with a history of medically diagnosed allergic disease. Maternal venous blood was collected between 36 and 40 wk of gestation. Serum UMFA was measured by LC-tandem MS. Serum total folate was determined using a microbiological method with chloramphenicol-resistant Lactobacillus rhamnosus as the test organism, and was collected between 36 and 40 wk of gestation. UMFA concentrations were measured by tandem MS using stable isotope dilution; folate concentrations were determined using the microbiological method with standardized kits. Infant allergic disease outcomes of medically diagnosed eczema, steroid-treated eczema, atopic eczema, IgE-mediated food allergy, allergen sensitization, and medically diagnosed wheeze were assessed at 1 y of age. RESULTS: Median (IQR) concentrations for UMFA and serum folate were 1.6 (0.6-4.7) and 53.2 (32.6-74.5) nmol/L, respectively. Of the infants, 34.6% had medically diagnosed eczema, 26.4% allergen sensitization, and 14.9% had an IgE-mediated food allergy. In both adjusted and unadjusted models there was little evidence of association between UMFA or serum folate and any of the infant allergy outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: In this cohort of children at high risk of allergic disease there was no association between maternal UMFA or serum folate concentrations measured in late pregnancy and allergic disease outcomes at 1 y of age.

A Human Milk-Based Protein Concentrate Developed for Preterm Infants Retains Bioactive Proteins and Supports Growth of Weanling Rats.

BACKGROUND: Bovine milk-based protein modulars are currently available to nutrient-enrich enteral feedings; however, they have limitations for use in very-low-birth-weight infants. OBJECTIVES: Our objectives were to develop a human milk-based protein (HMP) concentrate and to conduct a preclinical assessment of the HMP concentrate in weanling rats. METHODS: An HMP concentrate was produced from donor milk using pressure-driven membrane filtration processes and high hydrostatic pressure processing. Protein and lactoferrin concentrations and lysozyme activity were determined by Kjeldahl, HPLC, and turbidimetric assay, respectively. Male Sprague Dawley rats 24 d old (n = 30) were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 isocaloric AIN-93G diets for 4 wk containing 100% casein (control) or with 50% of the casein replaced with the HMP concentrate (treatment) or a bovine whey protein isolate (treatment). Body weight, food intake, fat mass, plasma amino acid profiles, and organ weights were measured. Data were analyzed using linear regression models. RESULTS: Raw donor milk contained (mean ± SD) 101 ± 6 g protein/kg and 5 ± 1 g lactoferrin/kg of milk solids. Postprocessing, protein and lactoferrin concentrations were 589 ± 3 g/kg and 29 ± 10 g/kg, respectively. Lysozyme activity was initially 209 ± 4 U/kg and increased to 959 ± 39 U/kg in the HMP concentrate. There were no statistically significant differences in body weight, food intake, fat mass, or plasma amino acid profiles between rats fed diets containing the HMP concentrate and the control diet. Full cecum weights were higher in rats fed the HMP concentrate than in those fed control diets (mean difference: 5.59 g; 95% CI: 4.50, 6.68 g; P < 0.0001), likely reflecting the concentration of human milk oligosaccharides. No differences were found for other organ weights. CONCLUSIONS: The HMP concentrate retained important bioactive proteins and supported normal rat growth in the preclinical assessment.

Term Infants Fed Exclusively With Donor Milk May Require Vitamin C Supplementation.

BACKGROUND: When there is insufficient mother's milk for preterm infants, fortified human donor milk (DM) is the preferred supplement. Recently, there is growing interest in providing DM to term infants. Aside from vitamin D, mother's milk is a complete source of nutrition for term infants. It is unknown whether supplementation of micronutrients is required for term infants exclusively fed DM, particularly for nutrients affected by heat processing, such as vitamin C. The objective of this study was to determine the total vitamin C content in DM and whether it would be adequate for an infant exclusively fed DM. METHODS: DM samples (n = 56) were collected at a Canadian milk bank from April to August 2018. Vitamin C concentration was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. RESULTS: DM samples had a vitamin C concentration of 17.7 ± 9.8 mg/L (mean ± SD) and were variable, ranging from 1.9 to 43.2 mg/L. Using these values and assuming an exclusive DM consumption of 780 mL/day, the estimated vitamin C intake would be 13.8 ± 8.6 mg (mean ± SD), falling below the adequate intake of 40 mg/day for infants (0-6 months old). CONCLUSION: Vitamin C supplementation is required for all infants if DM is the sole source of nutrition. Future studies should investigate other heat- and light-sensitive nutrients.

Maternal and Cord Blood Folate Concentrations Are Inversely Associated with Fetal DNA Hydroxymethylation, but Not DNA Methylation, in a Cohort of Pregnant Canadian Women.

BACKGROUND: Aberrancies in fetal DNA methylation programming may modify disease susceptibility of the offspring. Maternal folate status has potential to alter fetal DNA methylation. OBJECTIVES: We examined the association of maternal and cord blood concentrations of folate and unmetabolized folic acid (UMFA), vitamin B-12, vitamin B-6, and choline with fetal DNA methylation and hydroxymethylation and assessed potential modifying effects of 38 fetal genetic variants in 22 genes. METHODS: Nutrient blood concentrations were measured in 368 pregnant women in early pregnancy (12-16 wk of gestation) and at delivery (37-42 wk of gestation) and in cord blood. DNA methylation and hydroxymethylation in cord blood mononuclear cells were quantified by LC-MS/MS. Pearson partial correlations were used to determine the association between individual nutrients and DNA methylation and hydroxymethylation. RESULTS: Serum and RBC folate and plasma UMFA concentrations (primary outcomes) in early pregnancy, at delivery, and in cord blood were not significantly associated with fetal DNA methylation. In contrast, maternal RBC folate in early pregnancy (r = -0.16, P = 0.04) and cord plasma UMFA (r = -0.23, P = 0.004) were inversely correlated with fetal DNA hydroxymethylation. Neither maternal and cord blood concentrations of other nutrients nor fetal genotypes (secondary outcomes) were significantly associated with fetal DNA methylation or hydroxymethylation. Infants born to mothers with RBC folate concentrations in the highest quartile and serum vitamin B-12 concentrations in the lowest quartile in early pregnancy had significantly lower fetal DNA methylation and higher birth weight compared with those born to mothers with lower RBC folate and higher serum vitamin B-12 concentrations (P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Maternal and cord blood folate concentrations are associated with fetal DNA hydroxymethylation, but not DNA methylation, in a cohort of pregnant Canadian women. The observation that high folate and low vitamin B-12 maternal status in early pregnancy may be associated with decreased fetal DNA methylation and higher birth weight warrants further investigation. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02244684.

Upregulation of reduced folate carrier by vitamin D enhances brain folate uptake in mice lacking folate receptor alpha.

Folates are critical for central nervous system function. Folate transport is mediated by 3 major pathways, reduced folate carrier (RFC), proton-coupled folate transporter (PCFT), and folate receptor alpha (FRα/Folr1), known to be regulated by ligand-activated nuclear receptors. Cerebral folate delivery primarily occurs at the choroid plexus through FRα and PCFT; inactivation of these transport systems can result in very low folate levels in the cerebrospinal fluid causing childhood neurodegenerative disorders. These disorders have devastating effects in young children, and current therapeutic approaches are not sufficiently effective. Our group has previously reported in vitro that functional expression of RFC at the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and its upregulation by the vitamin D nuclear receptor (VDR) could provide an alternative route for brain folate uptake. In this study, we further demonstrated in vivo, using Folr1 knockout (KO) mice, that loss of FRα led to a substantial decrease of folate delivery to the brain and that pretreatment of Folr1 KO mice with the VDR activating ligand, calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3), resulted in over a 6-fold increase in [13C5]-5-formyltetrahydrofolate ([13C5]-5-formylTHF) concentration in brain tissues, with levels comparable to wild-type animals. Brain-to-plasma concentration ratio of [13C5]-5-formylTHF was also significantly higher in calcitriol-treated Folr1 KO mice (15-fold), indicating a remarkable enhancement in brain folate delivery. These findings demonstrate that augmenting RFC functional expression at the BBB could effectively compensate for the loss of Folr1-mediated folate uptake at the choroid plexus, providing a therapeutic approach for neurometabolic disorders caused by defective brain folate transport.

High Hydrostatic Pressure Processing Better Preserves the Nutrient and Bioactive Compound Composition of Human Donor Milk.

BACKGROUND: When mother's milk is insufficient, pasteurized human donor milk (DM) is the recommended supplement for hospitalized very-low-birth-weight infants. The current method of pasteurization (Holder, 62.5°C, 30 min) negatively affects heat-sensitive nutrients and bioactive proteins. OBJECTIVES: Objectives of this study were to compare changes in DM composition after thermal pasteurization (Holder and flash-heating) and nonthermal methods [UV-C irradiation and high hydrostatic pressure (HHP)]. We hypothesized that nonthermal techniques would result in fewer changes to composition. METHODS: Holder, flash-heating (brought to boil), UV-C irradiation (250 nm, 25 min), and HHP (500 MPa, 8 min) were studied. Pools of milk from 17 women known to contain bacteria at >5 × 107 colony forming units (CFU)/L were collected from the Rogers Hixon Ontario Human Milk Bank and underwent each pasteurization technique. Macronutrients, heat-sensitive micronutrients (vitamin C, folate), and bioactive components [bile-salt-stimulated lipase (BSSL), lysozyme, lactoferrin] were measured in raw and pools of pasteurized milk. Milk was cultured to determine how well each technique produced a culture negative result (detection limit <1 × 103 CFU/L). RESULTS: Folate was reduced by 24-27% after Holder, flash-heating, and UV-C (P < 0.05); no reduction was observed after HHP. All pasteurization methods reduced vitamin C (60-75%, P < 0.001). BSSL was abolished after Holder and flash-heating (P < 0.001), reduced after UV-C (48%, P < 0.001), but unaffected by HHP. Lysozyme activity was reduced after flash-heating (44%) and UV-C (74%, P < 0.004) but unaffected by Holder or HHP. Lactoferrin was reduced by all methods (P < 0.02) but most severely by flash-heating (74%) and least severely by HHP (25%). Holder and UV-C reduced lactoferrin by ∼48%. All pasteurization methods reduced the number of culture positive DM samples (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: HHP better preserves human milk composition than Holder pasteurization. Future research on the feasibility of HHP for pasteurizing human milk is warranted because its implementation may improve the nutritional status and health of DM-fed infants.

Switching to a fibre-rich and low-fat diet increases colonic folate contents among African Americans.

How dietary patterns impact colonic bacterial biosynthesis of vitamins and utilization by humans is poorly understood. Our aim was to investigate whether a reciprocal dietary switch between rural South Africans (traditionally high fibre, low fat) and African Americans (Western diet of low fibre, high fat) affects colonic folate synthesis. Colonic evacuants were obtained from 20 rural South Africans and 20 African Americans consuming their usual diets at baseline. For 2 weeks thereafter, rural South Africans were provided with a Western diet (protein, 27%; fat, 52%; carbohydrate, 20%; and fibre, 8 g/day) and African Americans were provided with a high fibre, low-fat diet (protein, 16%; fat, 17%; carbohydrate, 63%; and fibre, 43 g/day). Colonic evacuants were again collected. No difference between groups at baseline in the folate content of 3-h evacuants was observed. The high-fibre, low-fat diet consumed by African Americans during the intervention produced a 41% increase in mean total folate content compared with baseline values (p = 0.0037). No change was observed in rural South Africans consuming a Western diet. Mean total folate content of colonic evacuants was higher among African Americans at the end of the dietary switch (3107 ± 1811 µg) compared with rural South Africans (2157 ± 1956 µg) (p = 0.0409). In conclusion, consistent with animal studies, switching from a Western diet to one higher in fibre and lower in fat can be expected to result in greater colonic folate content. Future research should confirm that these observations are not transitory and understand the contribution of transit-time to the findings.

Characterizing neurocognitive late effects in childhood leukemia survivors using a combination of neuropsychological and cognitive neuroscience measures.

Knowledge about cognitive late effects in survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is largely based on standardized neuropsychological measures and parent reports. To examine whether cognitive neuroscience paradigms provided additional insights into neurocognitive and behavioral late effects in ALL survivors, we assessed cognition and behavior using a selection of cognitive neuroscience tasks and standardized measures probing domains previously demonstrated to be affected by chemotherapy. 130 ALL survivors and 158 control subjects, between 8 and 18 years old at time of testing, completed the n-back (working memory) and stop-signal (response inhibition) tasks. ALL survivors also completed standardized measures of intelligence (Wechsler Intelligence Scales [WISC-IV]), motor skills (Grooved Pegboard), math abilities (WIAT-III), and executive functions (Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System). Parents completed behavioral measures of executive functions (Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function [BRIEF]) and attention (Conners-3). ALL survivors exhibited deficiencies in working memory and response inhibition compared with controls. ALL survivors also exhibited deficits on WISC-IV working memory and processing speed, Grooved Pegboard, WIAT-III addition and subtraction fluency, and numerical operations, as well as DKEFS number-letter switching. Parent reports suggested more attention deficits (Conners-3) and behavioral difficulties (BRIEF) in ALL survivors compared with referenced norms. Low correspondence between standardized and experimental measures of working memory and response inhibition was noted. The use of cognitive neuroscience paradigms complements our understanding of the cognitive deficits evident after treatment of ALL. These measures could further delineate cognitive processes involved in neurocognitive late effects, providing opportunities to explore their underlying mechanisms.

High concentrations of folate and unmetabolized folic acid in a cohort of pregnant Canadian women and umbilical cord blood.

BACKGROUND: Mandatory fortification, prevalent supplement use, and public health guidelines recommending periconceptional supplementation have increased folic acid intakes in North American pregnant women. However, the effects of increased folic acid intakes during pregnancy on maternal and cord blood folate concentrations have not been well established. OBJECTIVES: In this prospective study, we determined maternal and cord blood concentrations of folate and unmetabolized folic acid (UMFA) in a cohort of pregnant Canadian women and their newborns and examined the effect of maternal intakes of folate and folic acid and fetal genetic variants in folate metabolism on folate status. DESIGN: Folate and folic acid intakes of 368 Canadian pregnant women were assessed in early (0-16 wk) and late (23-37 wk) pregnancy. Blood concentrations of folate and UMFA were measured with the use of immunoassays and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, respectively, in maternal samples in early pregnancy (12-16 wk), at delivery (28-42 wk), and in cord blood. Four fetal genetic variants of the 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) and dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) genes were assessed for their association with cord blood concentrations of folate and UMFA. RESULTS: Geometric mean (95% CI) maternal red blood cell (RBC) folate concentrations were 2417 nmol/L (2362, 2472 nmol/L ) and 2793 nmol/L (2721, 2867 nmol/L ) in early pregnancy and at delivery, respectively. The mean (95% CI) cord RBC folate concentration was 2689 nmol/L (2614, 2765 nmol/L). UMFA was detectable in >90% of maternal and cord plasma samples. Although 3 fetal MTHFR and DHFR genetic variants had no effect, the fetal MTHFR 677TT genotype was associated with significantly lower cord serum (P = 0.03) and higher cord RBC (P = 0.02) folate concentrations than those of the wild type. CONCLUSIONS: Notwithstanding differences in assays, maternal and cord RBC folate and plasma UMFA concentrations were higher than previously reported values. Functional ramifications of high folate and UMFA concentrations in maternal and fetal circulation warrant additional investigation because an excess folate status may affect long-term health outcomes of the offspring. This study was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02244684.

Folate is absorbed across the human colon: evidence by using enteric-coated caplets containing 13C-labeled [6S]-5-formyltetrahydrofolate.

BACKGROUND: Folate intakes that do not meet or greatly exceed requirements may be associated with negative health outcomes. A better understanding of contributors that influence the input side will help establish dietary guidance that ensures health benefits without associated risks. Colonic microbiota produce large quantities of folate, and [(13)C5]5-formyltetrahydrofolate infused during colonoscopy is absorbed. However, it is unclear if significant quantities of folate are absorbed in an intact microbiome. OBJECTIVE: We determined whether and how much of a physiologic dose of [(13)C5]5-formyltetrahydrofolate delivered in a pH-sensitive enteric caplet to an intact colonic microbiome is absorbed. DESIGN: Healthy adults ingested a specially designed pH-sensitive acrylic copolymer-coated barium sulfate caplet that contained 855 nmol (400 µg) [(13)C5]5-formyltetrahydrofolate. After a washout period ≥ 4 wk, subjects received an intravenous injection of the same compound (214 nmol). Serially collected blood samples before and after each test dose were analyzed by using a microbiological assay and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS: Caplet disintegration in the colon was observed by fluoroscopic imaging for 6 subjects with a mean (± SD) complete disintegration time of 284 ± 155 min. The mean (± SEM) rate of appearance of [(13)C5]5-methyltetrahydrofolate in plasma was 0.33 ± 0.09 (caplet) and 5.8 ± 1.2 (intravenous) nmol/h. Likely because of the significant time in the colon, the mean apparent absorption across the colon was 46%. CONCLUSIONS: Folate is absorbed across the colon in humans with an undisturbed microbiome. This finding and previous observations of the size of the colonic depot of folate and its potential for manipulation by diet (eg, dietary fiber, oligosaccharides, and probiotics) suggest that an individual's dietary folate requirement may differ depending on the consumption of dietary constituents that affect the size and composition of their gastrointestinal microbiota. In addition, a systematic investigation of the role of colonic folate on gastrointestinal development and the prevention of colorectal cancer is warranted. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00941174.

The direction of the difference between Canadian and American erythrocyte folate concentrations is dependent on the assay method employed: a comparison of the Canadian Health Measures Survey and National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.

Fortification of select grain products with folic acid and periconceptional supplementation recommendations in Canada and the USA have improved folate status, and have been associated with a reduced risk of neural tube defects. In the present study, we aimed to conduct a comparison of erythrocyte folate concentrations from the 2007-9 Canadian Health Measures Survey (CHMS) and the 2007-8 US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Erythrocyte folate concentration was assessed in participants aged 6-79 years (CHMS, n 5248; NHANES, n 7070). To account for different folate assays employed - Immulite 2000 immunoassay (CHMS) and microbiological assay (NHANES) - a conversion equation was generated (n 152 adults) to adjust the CHMS data. t Tests were used to examine country differences. Median Canadian erythrocyte folate concentrations (method-adjusted) were lower than those of Americans (988 and 1100 nmol/l, respectively), but unadjusted median Canadian erythrocyte folate concentrations were higher (1250 nmol/l). The upper 95% CI boundary of the method-adjusted Canadian erythrocyte folate distribution overlapped that of the American erythrocyte folate concentrations, while the lower 95% CI boundary of the method-adjusted Canadian erythrocyte folate data was below the American distribution. In summary, the fact that erythrocyte folate concentrations were either higher or lower in Canadians compared with Americans, depending on whether an adjustment was made to account for assay differences, suggests that caution must be exercised in evaluating erythrocyte folate data from different countries because analytical methods are not readily comparable. Furthermore, we cannot unequivocally conclude that there are true differences in erythrocyte folate concentrations between the Canadian and American populations in the post-fortification era.

Dietary oligosaccharides increase colonic weight and the amount but not concentration of bacterially synthesized folate in the colon of piglets.

Recently, we demonstrated that the large pool of folate present in the colon of humans can be absorbed. Here, we investigated whether the net amount of folate synthesized by bacteria in the colon of piglets can be modified by feeding prebiotics to alter their microbial milieu. Male piglets (age 5 d, n = 12) were randomized to a milk-based formula containing either 5 g/L inulin + 5 g/L galactooligosaccharides (IN-GOS) or 5 g/L maltodextrin (control). Body weight did not differ between groups during the 28-d feeding intervention. However, the mean weight of colonic tissue (38%) and their contents (238%) was higher in the IN-GOS than in the control group (P = 0.004, P = 0.0001, respectively). Total bacterial load in the colon of piglets fed IN-GOS was 531% greater and the total amount of folate found in the colon contents was 53% greater than that of controls (P = 0.002, P = 0.02, respectively). Indices of blood folate status (plasma and RBC folate and plasma homocysteine) and folate concentrations in liver and kidneys were unaffected. Both groups exhibited low RBC folate (56 ± 23 nmol/L) and elevated homocysteine (24 ± 7 µmol/L) concentrations, evidence of deficiency if present in humans. In conclusion, dietary supplementation with 5 g of inulin + 5 g of galactooligosaccharides increased the weight, bacterial load, and total folate content in the piglet colon; however, these changes were insufficient to modify indices of whole body folate status. Future studies investigating the impact of feeding prebiotics on localized folate status at the level of the colonocyte are warranted.

Products of the colonic microbiota mediate the effects of diet on colon cancer risk.

It is estimated that most colon cancers can be attributed to dietary causes. We have hypothesized that diet influences the health of the colonic mucosa through interaction with the microbiota and that it is the milieu interior that regulates mucosal proliferation and therefore cancer risk. To validate this further, we compared colonic contents from healthy 50- to 65-y-old people from populations with high and low risk, specifically low risk Native Africans (cancer incidence <1:100,000; n = 17), high risk African Americans (risk 65:100,000; n = 17), and Caucasian Americans (risk 50:100,000; n = 18). Americans typically consume a high-animal protein and -fat diet, whereas Africans consume a staple diet of maize meal, rich in resistant starch and low in animal products. Following overnight fasting, rapid colonic evacuation was performed with 2 L polyethylene glycol. Total colonic evacuants were analyzed for SCFA, vitamins, nitrogen, and minerals. Total SCFA and butyrate were significantly higher in Native Africans than in both American groups. Colonic folate and biotin content, measured by Lactobacillus rhamnoses and Lactobacillus plantarum ATCC 8014 bioassay, respectively, exceeded normal daily dietary intakes. Compared with Africans, calcium and iron contents were significantly higher in Caucasian Americans and zinc content was significantly higher in African Americans, but nitrogen content did not differ among the 3 groups. In conclusion, the results support our hypothesis that the microbiota mediates the effect diet has on colon cancer risk by their generation of butyrate, folate, and biotin, molecules known to play a key role in the regulation of epithelial proliferation.

Folate is absorbed across the colon of adults: evidence from cecal infusion of (13)C-labeled [6S]-5-formyltetrahydrofolic acid.

BACKGROUND: Folate deficiency increases the risk of several human diseases. Likewise, high intakes of folate, particularly synthetic folic acid intake, may be associated with adverse health outcomes in humans. A more comprehensive understanding of the "input side" of folate nutrition may help to set dietary recommendations that strike the right balance between health benefits and risks. It is well known that the microflora in the colon produce large quantities of folate that approach or exceed recommended dietary intakes; however, there is no direct evidence of the bioavailability of this pool in humans. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to determine whether, and to what extent, the natural folate vitamer 5-formyltetrahydrofolic acid is absorbed across the intact colon of humans. DESIGN: During screening colonoscopy, 684 nmol (320 microg) [(13)C]glutamyl-5-formyltetrahydrofolic acid was infused directly into the cecum of 6 healthy adults. Three or more weeks later, each subject received an intravenous injection of the same compound (172 nmol). Blood samples were collected before and after each treatment. The ratio of labeled to unlabeled folates was determined in plasma by tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS: The apparent rate of folate absorption across the colon of a bolus dose of [(13)C]5-formyltetrahydrofolic acid infused into the cecum was 0.6 +/- 0.2 nmol/h, as determined by the appearance of [(13)C(5)]5-methyltetrahydrofolic acid in plasma. In comparison, the rate of appearance of [(13)C(5)]5-methyltetrahydrofolic acid after an intravenous injection of [(13)C(5)]5-formyltetrahydrofolate was 7 +/- 1.2 nmol/h. CONCLUSION: Physiologic doses of natural folate are absorbed across the intact colon in humans.