Class I Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase Exerts a Differential Role on Cell Survival and Cell Trafficking in Retina.

Phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3Ks) are a family of lipid kinases that phosphorylates the 3'OH of the inositol ring of phosphoinositides. They are responsible for coordinating a diverse range of cell functions including proliferation, cell survival, degranulation, vesicular trafficking, and cell migration. The PI 3-kinases are grouped into three distinct classes: I, II, and III. Class III PI3K has been shown to be involved in intracellular protein trafficking, whereas class I PI3K is known to regulate cell survival following activation of cell surface receptors. However, studies from our laboratory and others have shown that class I PI3K may also be involved in photoreceptor protein trafficking. Therefore, to learn more about the role of class I and class III P13K in trafficking and to understand the impact of the lipid content of trafficking cargo vesicles, we developed a methodology to isolate trafficking vesicles from retinal tissue. PI3K class I and III proteins were enriched in our extracted trafficking vesicle fraction. Moreover, levels of ether phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and ether phosphatidylcholine (PC) were significantly higher in the trafficking vesicle fraction than in total retina. These two lipid classes have been suggested to be involved with fusion/targeting of trafficking vesicles.

RD3 loss dictates high-risk aggressive neuroblastoma and poor clinical outcomes.

Clinical outcomes for high-risk neuroblastoma patients remains poor, with only 40-50% 5-Year overall survival (OS) and <10% long-term survival. The ongoing acquisition of genetic/molecular rearrangements in undifferentiated neural crest cells may endorse neuroblastoma progression. This study recognized the loss of Retinal Degeneration protein 3, RD3 in aggressive neuroblastoma, and identified its influence in better clinical outcomes and defined its novel metastasis suppressor function. The results showed ubiquitous expression of RD3 in healthy tissues, complete-loss and significant TNM-stage association of RD3 in clinical samples. RD3-loss was intrinsically associated with reduced OS, abridged relapse-free survival, aggressive stage etc., in neuroblastoma patient cohorts. RD3 was transcriptionally and translationally regulated in metastatic site-derived aggressive (MSDAC) cells (regardless of CSC status) ex vivo and in tumor manifolds from metastatic sites in reproducible aggressive disease models in vivo. Re-expressing RD3 in MSDACs reverted their metastatic potential both in vitro and in vivo. Conversely muting RD3 in neuroblastoma cells not only heightened invasion/migration but also dictated aggressive disease with metastasis. These results demonstrate the loss of RD3 in high-risk neuroblastoma, its novel, thus-far unrecognized metastasis suppressor function and further imply that RD3-loss may directly relate to tumor aggressiveness and poor clinical outcomes.

SNAREs Interact with Retinal Degeneration Slow and Rod Outer Segment Membrane Protein-1 during Conventional and Unconventional Outer Segment Targeting.

Mutations in the photoreceptor protein peripherin-2 (also known as RDS) cause severe retinal degeneration. RDS and its homolog ROM-1 (rod outer segment protein 1) are synthesized in the inner segment and then trafficked into the outer segment where they function in tetramers and covalently linked larger complexes. Our goal is to identify binding partners of RDS and ROM-1 that may be involved in their biosynthetic pathway or in their function in the photoreceptor outer segment (OS). Here we utilize several methods including mass spectrometry after affinity purification, in vitro co-expression followed by pull-down, in vivo pull-down from mouse retinas, and proximity ligation assay to identify and confirm the SNARE proteins Syntaxin 3B and SNAP-25 as novel binding partners of RDS and ROM-1. We show that both covalently linked and non-covalently linked RDS complexes interact with Syntaxin 3B. RDS in the mouse is trafficked from the inner segment to the outer segment by both conventional (i.e., Golgi dependent) and unconventional secretory pathways, and RDS from both pathways interacts with Syntaxin3B. Syntaxin 3B and SNAP-25 are enriched in the inner segment (compared to the outer segment) suggesting that the interaction with RDS/ROM-1 occurs in the inner segment. Syntaxin 3B and SNAP-25 are involved in mediating fusion of vesicles carrying other outer segment proteins during outer segment targeting, so could be involved in the trafficking of RDS/ROM-1.

Impaired association of retinal degeneration-3 with guanylate cyclase-1 and guanylate cyclase-activating protein-1 leads to leber congenital amaurosis-1.

One-fifth of all cases of Leber congenital amaurosis are type 1 (LCA1). LCA1 is a severe form of retinal dystrophy caused by loss-of-function mutations in guanylate cyclase 1 (GC1), a key member of the phototransduction cascade involved in modulating the photocurrents. Although GC1 has been studied for some time, the mechanisms responsible for its regulation and membrane targeting are not fully understood. We reported earlier that retinal degeneration 3 (RD3) protein interacts with GC1 and promotes its targeting to the photoreceptor outer segments (POS). Here, we extend our studies to show a direct association between RD3 and guanylate cyclase activating protein 1 (GCAP1). Furthermore, we demonstrate that this functional interaction is important for GC1 targeting to POS. We also show that most LCA1-causing mutations in GC1 result in lost GC1 interaction with RD3 or GC1 being targeted to the plasma membrane. Our data suggest that GC1, GCAP1, and RD3 form a complex in the endoplasmic reticulum that targets GC1 to POS. Interruption of this assembly is likely the underlying mechanism for a subset of LCA1. This study offers insights for the development of therapeutic strategies to treat this severe form of blindness.

Insights into the mechanisms of macular degeneration associated with the R172W mutation in RDS.

Mutations in the photoreceptor tetraspanin gene peripherin-2/retinal degeneration slow (PRPH2/RDS) cause both rod- and cone-dominant diseases. While rod-dominant diseases, such as autosomal dominant retinitis pigmentosa, are thought to arise due to haploinsufficiency caused by loss-of-function mutations, the mechanisms underlying PRPH2-associated cone-dominant diseases are unclear. Here we took advantage of a transgenic mouse line expressing an RDS mutant (R172W) known to cause macular degeneration (MD) in humans. To facilitate the study of cones in the heavily rod-dominant mouse retina, R172W mice were bred onto an Nrl(-/-) background (in which developing rods adopt a cone-like fate). In this model the R172W protein and the key RDS-binding partner, rod outer segment (OS) membrane protein 1 (ROM-1), were properly expressed and trafficked to cone OSs. However, the expression of R172W led to dominant defects in cone structure and function with equal effects on S- and M-cones. Furthermore, the expression of R172W in cones induced subtle alterations in RDS/ROM-1 complex assembly, specifically resulting in the formation of abnormal, large molecular weight ROM-1 complexes. Fundus imaging demonstrated that R172W mice developed severe clinical signs of disease nearly identical to those seen in human MD patients, including retinal degeneration, retinal pigment epithlium (RPE) defects and loss of the choriocapillaris. Collectively, these data identify a primary disease-causing molecular defect in cone cells and suggest that RDS-associated disease in patients may be a result of this defect coupled with secondary sequellae involving RPE and choriocapillaris cell loss.

RD3: a challenge and a promise.

Photoreceptor (PR) cells are highly specialized cells that convert light into electrical signals. Ten percent of their outer segment (OS) membranes (approximately 77 cm2 of membrane) are renewed every day. Therefore, PR cells must possess an extraordinary trafficking system to provide all of the needed material to build up the OS discs through a 0.3 µm diameter connecting cilium. The mechanism of trafficking of membrane proteins in the retina and corresponding degenerative diseases is still elusive. The retinal degeneration(rd3) is the gene responsible for a murine autosomal recessive hereditary retinal degeneration, which is known as Leber Congenital Amaurosis 12 (LCA12). Degeneration starts at about two weeks of age and is completed between 2-4 months. We generated the first antibody against this protein and by a protein-protein interaction analysis discovered that RD3 protein directly interacts with guanylate cyclase 1 (GC1) and partially expresses in the OS. We also detected the major binding site between these two proteins and realized that RD3 is directly involved in trafficking of this crucial protein. In a separate study, we reported that RD3 negatively regulates GC1, which is crucial for efficient trafficking of GC1 during the trafficking path, and RD3 prevents unnecessary production of cGMP. It is possible that RD3 is still involved in regulating GC1 even after targeting. Several mutations that cause visual difficulties have been reported for the mouse and human ortholog of RD3. The symptoms these mutations cause are very similar to those reported for a more severe form of blindness referred to as LCA1. Therefore, RD3 might cause a broader range of retinal diseases. Gene replacement of RD3 has shown to restore the GC1 across the retina. This makes RD3 a novel therapeutic target for retinal targeting impaired degenerative diseases.

Retinal degeneration 3 (RD3) protein inhibits catalytic activity of retinal membrane guanylyl cyclase (RetGC) and its stimulation by activating proteins.

Retinal membrane guanylyl cyclase (RetGC) in the outer segments of vertebrate photoreceptors is controlled by guanylyl cyclase activating proteins (GCAPs), responding to light-dependent changes of the intracellular Ca(2+) concentrations. We present evidence that a different RetGC binding protein, retinal degeneration 3 protein (RD3), is a high-affinity allosteric modulator of the cyclase which inhibits RetGC activity at submicromolar concentrations. It suppresses the basal activity of RetGC in the absence of GCAPs in a noncompetitive manner, and it inhibits the GCAP-stimulated RetGC at low intracellular Ca(2+) levels. RD3 opposes the allosteric activation of the cyclase by GCAP but does not significantly change Ca(2+) sensitivity of the GCAP-dependent regulation. We have tested a number of mutations in RD3 implicated in human retinal degenerative disorders and have found that several mutations prevent the stable expression of RD3 in HEK293 cells and decrease the affinity of RD3 for RetGC1. The RD3 mutant lacking the carboxy-terminal half of the protein and associated with Leber congenital amaurosis type 12 (LCA12) is unable to suppress the activity of the RetGC1/GCAP complex. Furthermore, the inhibitory activity of the G57V mutant implicated in cone-rod degeneration is strongly reduced. Our results suggest that inhibition of RetGC by RD3 may be utilized by photoreceptors to block RetGC activity during its maturation and/or incorporation into the photoreceptor outer segment rather than participate in dynamic regulation of the cyclase by Ca(2+) and GCAPs.

RD3, the protein associated with Leber congenital amaurosis type 12, is required for guanylate cyclase trafficking in photoreceptor cells.

Guanylate cyclases, GC1 and GC2, are localized in the light-sensitive outer segment compartment of photoreceptor cells, where they play a crucial role in phototransduction by catalyzing the synthesis of cGMP, the second messenger of phototransduction, and regulating intracellular Ca(2+) levels in combination with the cGMP-gated channel. Mutations in GC1 are known to cause Leber congenital amaurosis type 1 (LCA1), a childhood disease associated with severe vision loss. Although the enzymatic and regulatory properties of guanylate cyclases have been studied extensively, the molecular determinants responsible for their trafficking in photoreceptors remain unknown. Here we show that RD3, a protein of unknown function encoded by a gene associated with photoreceptor degeneration in humans with Leber congenital amaurosis type 12 (LCA12), the rd3 mouse, and rcd2 collie, colocalizes and interacts with GC1 and GC2 in rod and cone photoreceptor cells of normal mice. GC1 and GC2 are undetectable in photoreceptors of the rd3 mouse deficient in RD3 by immunofluorescence microscopy. Cell expression studies show that RD3 mediates the export of GC1 from the endoplasmic reticulum to endosomal vesicles, and that the C terminus of GC1 is required for RD3 binding. Our results indicate that photoreceptor degeneration in the rd3 mouse, rcd2 dog, and LCA12 patients is caused by impaired RD3-mediated guanylate cyclase expression and trafficking. The resulting deficiency in cGMP synthesis and the constitutive closure of cGMP-gated channels might cause a reduction in intracellular Ca(2+) to a level below that required for long-term photoreceptor cell survival.

Excessive activation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase contributes to inherited photoreceptor degeneration in the retinal degeneration 1 mouse.

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is an inherited blinding disease for which there is no treatment available. It is characterized by a progressive and neurodegenerative loss of photoreceptors but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Excessive activation of the enzyme poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) has recently been shown to be involved in several neuropathologies. To investigate the possible role of PARP in retinal photoreceptor degeneration, we used the retinal degeneration 1 (rd1) mouse RP model to study PARP expression, PARP activity, and to test the effects of PARP inhibition on photoreceptor viability. PARP expression was found to be equal between rd1 and wild-type counterpart retinas. In contrast to this, a dramatic increase in both PARP activity per se and PARP product formation was detected by in situ assays in rd1 photoreceptors actively undergoing cell death. Furthermore, PARP activity colabeled with oxidatively damaged DNA and nuclear translocation of AIF (apoptosis-inducing factor), suggesting activation of PARP as a bridge between these events in the degenerating photoreceptors. The PARP-specific inhibitor PJ34 [N-(6-oxo-5,6-dihydrophenanthridin-2-yl)-N,N-dimethylacetamide x HCl[ reduced the number of cells exhibiting death markers in a short-term retinal culture paradigm, a protective effect that was translated into an increased number of surviving photoreceptors when the inhibitor was used in a long-term culture setting. Our results thus demonstrate an involvement of PARP activity in rd1 photoreceptor cell death, which could have a bearing on the understanding of neurodegenerations as such. The findings also suggest that the therapeutical possibilities of PARP inhibition should include retinal diseases like RP.

Calpain activation and apoptosis in motor neurons of cultured adult mouse spinal cord.

Calpain, a Ca2+-dependent cysteine protease, has been implicated in neuronal apoptosis following spinal cord injury. In this study, activation of calpain was investigated in motor neurons of adult spinal cord slices from the mouse, using a cell-permeable fluorogenic calpain substrate and Western blotting. Calpain was rapidly activated in the motor neurons of excised spinal cord slices and calpain activity was observed both in the cytoplasm and the nuclei. In these neurons, nuclear and chromatin condensation were pronounced. Both calpain inhibitor VI and EGTA (ethyleneglycol-bis(beta-aminoethyl ether) N' ,N' ,N' ,N' -tetraacetic acid) inhibited calpain activation and subsequent appearance of apoptotic nuclei. In contrast, the general caspase inhibitor Z-VAD.fmk had no effect. Calpain activation was also observed in the slices by Western blotting using an antibody to 150-kD calpain-cleaved alpha-fodrin fragment. These results show that calpain is rapidly activated in injured motor neurons and imply that this activation could be responsible for execution of caspase-independent apoptosis in injured adult motor neurons.

CNTF+BDNF treatment and neuroprotective pathways in the rd1 mouse retina.

The rd1 mouse is a relevant model for studying the mechanisms of photoreceptor degeneration in retinitis pigmentosa. Treatment with ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) in combination with brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is known to rescue photoreceptors in cultured rd1 retinal explants. To shed light on the underlying mechanisms, we studied the effects of 9 days (starting at postnatal day 2) in vitro CNTF+BDNF treatment on the endogenous production of CNTF, BDNF, fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2), or the activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), Akt and cAMP-response-element-binding protein (CREB) in retinal explants. In rd1 explants, CNTF+BDNF decreased the number of TUNEL-positive photoreceptors. The treatment also increased endogenous rd1 levels of CNTF and BDNF, but lowered the level of FGF2 expression in rd1 explants. When wild-type explants were treated, endogenous CNTF was similarly increased, while BDNF and FGF2 levels remained unaffected. In addition, treatment of rd1 retinas strongly increased the phosphorylation of ERK, Akt and CREB. In treated wild-type explants, the same parameters were either unchanged (ERK) or decreased (Akt and CREB). The results suggest a role for Akt, ERK and CREB in conveying the neuroprotective effect of CNTF+BDNF treatment in rd1 retinal explants.

Up-regulation and increased phosphorylation of protein kinase C (PKC) delta, mu and theta in the degenerating rd1 mouse retina.

The rd1 mouse serves as a model for inherited photoreceptor degeneration: retinitis pigmentosa. Microarray techniques were employed to compare the transcriptomes of rd1 and congenic wild-type retinas at postnatal day 11, when degenerative processes have started but most photoreceptors are still present. Of the several genes that were differentially expressed, focus was put on those associated with the protein kinase C (PKC) signaling pathway, in particular PKCdelta, mu and theta. Microarray identified these as being up-regulated in the rd1 retina, which was confirmed by QRT-PCR. Western blotting and immunostaining, using antibodies against either total or phosphorylated variants of the PKC isoforms, revealed increased expression and phosphorylation of PKCdelta, mu and theta in the rd1 retina at the protein level as well. Our results suggest that these PKC isoforms are involved in rd1 degeneration.

Calpain is activated in degenerating photoreceptors in the rd1 mouse.

The retinal degeneration (rd)1 mouse displays an inherited retinal degeneration and therefore allows studies of the molecular mechanisms behind the blinding disease retinitis pigmentosa. Activation of the calcium-dependent protease calpain has been suggested to play an important role in cell death in various tissues, but little is known about the expression and activity of calpain during inherited retinal degeneration. Using microarray techniques, transcript levels of cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (CREB)-1, calpastatin and of various calpain genes were analysed in the rd1 mouse compared with its wild-type control. Expression of distinct calpain isoforms and calpastatin was investigated using immunofluorescence and immunoblotting. Gene transcription and protein expression levels were compared with calpain activity using an enzymatic assay that allowed monitoring of calpain activity at the cellular level. We found that CREB-1 and calpastatin expression was reduced in rd1 retinas, whereas calpain activity was substantially increased in rd1 photoreceptors. Calpain activity peaked at postnatal day 13, together with rd1 photoreceptor cell death. Calpain-specific inhibitors decreased calpain activity in situ. These results indicate that activation of calpains correlates with rd1 photoreceptor cell death, which raises the possibility of using calpain inhibitors to prevent or delay photoreceptor degeneration.

Neuronal integration in an abutting-retinas culture system.

PURPOSE: Limited integration is consistently observed between subretinal transplants and host retinas. In the current study, an in vitro model system for studying connections forming between two abutting retinas was developed. METHODS: Neuroretinas were dissected from normal wild-type (WT) mice and green fluorescent protein (GFP) transgenic mice (obtained at postnatal days [P]0, P5, or P60), as well as from adult rd mice. Pieces from two different retinas (WT-WT, GFP-WT, GFP-rd) were placed side-by-side (contacting each other at the margins) or overlapping each other in organ cultures for 7 or 12 days. The abutting retinal pieces derived from animals of the same age (P5-P5; P60-P60) or of different ages (P0-P60; P5-P60). Retinal cells and fibers were visualized in wholemount preparations and in cross sections by immunocytochemistry using antibodies against neurofilament (NF+), neuronal nitric oxide synthase (NOS+), and protein kinase C (PKC+) and by GFP fluorescence (GFP+). RESULTS: In side-by-side pairs (WT-WT, GFP-WT), numerous horizontal cell fibers (NF+) and amacrine cell fibers (NOS+) crossed the interface between the two pieces, forming continuous plexiform layers. In overlapping pairs, NF+, NOS+, and PKC+ fibers displayed parallel plexiform layers, and no crossover of fibers was observed in any of the pair combinations examined (WT-WT, GFP-WT, GFP-rd). Some integration was seen only in small areas where the structure of both retinal pieces was disrupted at the interface. CONCLUSIONS: The results demonstrate the ability of neurites to extend between abutting retinas and to make appropriate target choices when they are placed side-by-side. However, this ability is limited when they overlap each other, similar to that observed in subretinal transplantation.