Operational Definitions of Poly-Victimization: A Scoping Review.

Throughout the last two decades, research on poly-victimization (PV) has evolved from examinations of a core set of past-year victimization types in youth samples to investigations of a broad range of victimization types experienced during variable time intervals in diverse samples of varying ages. As the concept of PV expands, greater clarity regarding the definition and measurement of PV is needed to advance understanding of its risk and protective factors as well as its associated outcomes. This scoping review aimed to (a) identify approaches used to operationally define and measure PV across studies and (b) synthesize empirical findings concerning risk factors and outcomes associated with PV. A systematic search of peer-reviewed research published before 2022 across 12 databases yielded 98 studies that met inclusion criteria. Study characteristics including the research design, sample type, victimization timeframe, operational definition(s) of PV, measurement of PV, analytic methods, and key findings were synthesized across studies. Findings indicated that the majority of reviewed studies were cross-sectional investigations that utilized categorical measures of lifetime PV in samples of youth. Results also demonstrated that PV is robustly associated with a broad range of predictors, including mental health symptoms and diagnoses as well as family- and community-level factors. PV is also associated with numerous adverse outcomes including depression, anxiety, suicidality, substance use, and delinquency across diverse study types and populations. Future research that examines the conditional effects of PV is needed to identify subgroups of individuals at higher risk of adverse outcomes following PV and modifiable targets for interventions.

"So many extra safety layers:" Virtual service provision and implementing social distancing in interpersonal violence service agencies during COVID-19.

The coronavirus pandemic necessitated rapid shifts in approach for service providers working with survivors of interpersonal violence. To reduce the spread of the virus, providers and agencies implemented a rapid and unplanned expansion of virtual services while also developing new protocols to support safe and socially distant in-person services. To understand how these shifts have impacted victim service professionals and the survivors they serve, to provide guidance for on-going efforts, and to inform planning for future public health emergencies, this study asks the question: What approaches did the interpersonal violence workforce use to address social distancing needs during COVID-19? Semi-structured interviews were conducted from July to December 2020 with 33 interpersonal violence service providers from across the United States, and data were analyzed via conventional content analysis with additional steps for data credibility. Findings fall within two primary categories: 1) Technology and Virtual Service Provision; and 2) Social Distancing for In-person Services. Within each category, a number of themes emerged illustrating strengths and challenges of each approach, and the complex web of technological, safety, and public health considerations being balanced in interpersonal violence service agencies. These results provide guidance for the implementation of virtual services in an on-going manner, as well as underscoring the importance of future planning to facilitate effective in-person but physically distant services. There is also a clear need for agencies to support the interpersonal violence workforce to reduce occupational stress and enhance skills and capacities with new forms of services.

Intimate Partner Violence, Economic Insecurity, and Health Outcomes Among American Indian and Alaska Native Men and Women: Findings From a National Sample.

Limited data are available on experiences of intimate partner violence (IPV) and sexual violence (SV) and health outcomes among American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) populations. This study explores the relationship between IPV and SV, food insecurity, housing insecurity, healthcare access, and self-reported physical and mental health status in a nationally representative sample of AIAN adults (N = 3,634). IPV and SV were associated with poorer physical and mental health at the bivariate level, but not in multivariate analyses. Economic inequalities are a salient predictor of health and may be compounded by demographic and geographic contexts.

"I Felt Better When I Moved Into My Own Place": Needs and Experiences of Intimate Partner Violence Survivors in Rapid Rehousing.

Accessing stable housing is a basic need for intimate partner violence (IPV) survivors, and rapid rehousing programs are a critical way to address homelessness. However, little is known about survivor experiences, needs, and outcomes in rapid rehousing services within IPV agencies. This study uses an exploratory approach to understand the needs and experiences of 31 survivors using vouchers facilitated by an IPV program in the U.S. Southwest. Thematic analysis of structured interviews resulted in four summary themes: getting to housing, managing multiple needs, accessing support, and facing barriers. Practice and evaluation implications are discussed.

Racial and Gender Inequalities in Food, Housing, and Healthcare Insecurity Associated with Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence.

The costs and consequences of intimate partner violence (IPV) and sexual violence (SV) are well-documented; however, little is known about how experiences of violence are connected to specific economic insecurities including food, healthcare, and housing insecurity among both men and women. This study investigates (1) the prevalence of food, healthcare, and housing insecurity across gender and racial groups exposed to IPV and SV and (2) associations between exposure to past-year IPV and SV and past-year food, healthcare, and housing insecurity controlling for confounding factors. A cross-sectional survey design was used in this study. Data from 2010 National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS) were analyzed in a nationally representative sample of men (N = 8079) and women (N = 9970). Logistic regressions were used to model associations between past-year intimate partner and sexual violence and dependent variables of food, healthcare, and housing insecurity. Analyses were stratified by gender and included control variables of age, income, education, and race/ethnicity. Higher rates of food, housing, and healthcare insecurity were found among men and women of color exposed to violence, particularly among respondents who identified as Black/African American, Latinx, American Indian/Alaska Native, and other racial/ethnic minority groups. For men, IPV and SV was associated with higher odds for experiencing food (AOR = 2.40, p <.001), housing (AOR = 2.06, p <.001), and healthcare insecurity (AOR = 2.39, p <.001). For women, IPV and SV was also associated with higher odds for experiencing food (AOR = 2.16, p <.001), housing (AOR = 1.94, p <.001), and healthcare insecurity (AOR = 2.38, p <.001). Findings identify specific economic needs among survivors and suggest that the burdens of IPV and SV are not equitably shared across racial/ethnic populations. Findings can inform policy that aims to reduce inequalities in food, housing, and healthcare associated with IPV and SV.

Evaluating Measures of Intimate Partner Violence Using Consensus-Based Standards of Validity.

The assessment of intimate partner violence (IPV) by mental health, medical, and criminal justice practitioners occurs routinely. The validity of the assessment instrument they use impacts practitioners' ability to judge ongoing risk, establish the type of IPV occurring, protect potential victims, and intervene effectively. Yet, there is no known compendium of existing assessment measures. The purpose of this article is threefold: (1) to present a systematic review of measures used to identify or predict IPV, (2) to determine which of these measures have psychometric evidence to support their use, and (3) to determine whether any existing measure is capable of differentiating between situational couple violence and intimate terrorism. A systematic search was conducted using PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, PubMed, and MEDLINE. Studies on the reliability or validity of specific measures of IPV were included, regardless of format, length, discipline, or type of IPV assessed. A total of 222 studies, on the psychometric properties of 87 unique measures, met our a priori criteria and were included in the review. We described the reliability and validity of the 87 measures. We rated the measures based on the Consensus-based Standards for the Selection of Health Measurement Instruments-revised criteria and other established validity criteria, which allowed us to generate a list of recommended measures. We also discussed measures designed to differentiate IPV types. We conclude by describing the strengths and weaknesses of existing measures and by suggesting new avenues for researchers to enhance the assessment of IPV.

Sexual Violence Among Gender and Sexual Minority College Students: The Risk and Extent of Victimization and Related Health and Educational Outcomes.

A multisite survey conducted at eight campuses of a southwestern university system provides the data for the present study, total N = 17,039 with 1,869 gender and sexual minority (GSM) students. Sexual violence was measured using the Sexual Experiences Survey (SES), and analysis included both the participant's risk of experiencing sexual violence and the extent (or total count) of sexual violence experienced. This study poses the following research questions: What effects do gender identity and sexual orientation have on the risk and extent of sexual violence among students and, among victims, what is the relationship between gender identity/sexual orientation and mental health (posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD], depression) and academic environment (disengagement and safety) outcomes for university students? Multilevel, random effect hurdle models captured this sequential victimization dynamic. GSM and cisgender heterosexual (CH) female students are predicted to be 2.6 and 3 times, respectively, as likely to experience sexual violence compared with CH male students. In addition, GSM students experiencing sexual violence are also expected to experience a greater number of sexually violent acts (74% more) over their college career compared with victimized CH male students. The models confirm that the risk of victimization increases over time (13% per year for CH male students), but GSM students are expected to experience an additional (10%) increase in risk of victimization per year compared with CH male students. GSM and CH female students are also predicted to be more likely to have PTSD and experience more severe depression symptoms than CH male students. GSM students are expected to experience significantly higher rates of PTSD, worse depressive symptoms, and greater disengagement than CH female students. The discussion explores how institutions of higher education might recognize the resilience of GSM students and consider the protective potential of social and community support when developing programs or interventions for diverse populations.

Prevalence and sociodemographic factors associated with stalking victimization among college students.

Objective: This study's purpose was to examine the prevalence and sociodemographic factors associated with stalking victimization among a diverse sample of college students. Participants: Data were collected through a cross-sectional survey administered in November 2015 to students 18 and older on 8 academic universities in a Southwestern university system (N = 26,417). Methods: Descriptive statistics were used to assess the prevalence of stalking experiences across student populations. Multivariate logistic regression was used to examine associations between sociodemographic factors and stalking victimization. Results: A total of 17.4% of students reported stalking victimization since entering college. Cisgender females, transgender/gender-nonconforming, and sexual minority students had higher odds of stalking victimization than their counterparts, whereas Latino/a students had lower odds of stalking victimization compared to White nonHispanic students. Conclusions: A notable proportion of college students have experienced stalking. Disparities found among student populations are concerning and warrant further investigation.

Campus Sexual Assault: A Systematic Review of Prevalence Research From 2000 to 2015.

Sexual assault is a pervasive problem on university and college campuses in the United States that has garnered growing national attention, particularly in the past year. This is the first study to systematically review and synthesize prevalence findings from studies on campus sexual assault (CSA) published since 2000 ( n = 34). The range of prevalence findings for specific forms of sexual victimization on college campuses (i.e., forcible rape, unwanted sexual contact, incapacitated rape, sexual coercion, and studies' broad definitions of CSA/rape) is provided, and methodological strengths and limitations in the empirical body of research on CSA are discussed. Prevalence findings, research design, methodology, sampling techniques, and measures, including the forms of sexual victimization measured, are presented and evaluated across studies. Findings suggest that unwanted sexual contact appears to be most prevalent on college campuses, including sexual coercion, followed by incapacitated rape, and completed or attempted forcible rape. Additionally, several studies measured broad constructs of sexual assault that typically include combined forms of college-based sexual victimization (i.e., forcible completed or attempted rape, unwanted sexual contact, and/or sexual coercion). Extensive variability exists within findings for each type of sexual victimization measured, including those that broadly measure sexual assault, which is largely explained by differences in sampling strategies and overall study designs as well as measures of sexual assault used in studies. Implications for findings and recommendations for future research on the prevalence of college-based sexual victimization are provided.

Police violence among women in four U.S. cities.

Police violence has been identified as a public health concern in the U.S., yet few studies have assessed the prevalence and nature of police violence among women. Furthermore, increasing evidence suggests that women reporting intimate partner violence (IPV) and sexual violence (SV) to police are often met with harmful or neglectful police responses and thus, women's exposures to police violence may be associated with experiences of IPV and SV; however, this has not yet been empirically tested. This study assesses lifetime prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of police violence among women and investigates potential associations between IPV, SV, and police violence. A cross-sectional survey was administered in four Eastern U.S. cities in March and April 2016 (N=932). Physical, sexual, and psychological police victimization and neglect by police were assessed. Logistic regression was used to examine the relationship between IPV, SV, and police violence, adjusting for sociodemographics. Lifetime prevalence of physical (4%), sexual (3.3%), and psychological (14.4%) police violence and neglect (17.2%), show that a notable proportion of women experience police victimization, with significantly higher rates among racial and ethnic minority women. Women with IPV and SV histories had increased odds of experiencing most forms of police violence compared to women without IPV and SV histories. Findings suggest the need for gender-inclusive community-centered policing initiatives and other preventive efforts aimed at eliminating police violence. Police violence and victimization among women should also be considered in IPV and SV intervention and treatment responses.

NIJ's Program of Domestic Violence Research: collaborative efforts to build knowledge guided by safety for victims and accountability of perpetrators.

The primary focus of the National Institute of Justice's (NIJ's) Violence Against Women (VAW) research and evaluation program has been domestic violence, also called intimate partner violence (IPV). The program has supported over 200 studies that have centered on definition and measurement, victims and perpetrators, children, contexts and consequences of domestic violence, and civil and criminal justice interventions and processes responding to these crimes. Funding approaches in the program have employed grants for research and evaluation, demonstration programs with partner agencies, joint funding of research through interagency agreements, and collaborations with agencies and organizations sharing common objectives. Results have influenced policy and practices, particularly results from those studies conducted by researcher-practitioner collaborations. NIJ's success in the development and progress of this program is attributed to the initial vision that included researchers, practitioners, and policymakers in an ongoing discourse about what is known and needs to be known. The terms domestic violence and IPV are used interchangeably throughout the article.

Building a solid foundation for sexual violence research: applying lessons learned to inform research priorities.

The extant research on sexual violence has developed into a substantial body of knowledge, in large part supported by federal funds from agencies such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the National Institute of Justice (NIJ), and National Institutes of Health (NIH) components. Overall, NIJ has dedicated over US$20 million in research funds to study sexual violence resulting in more than 60 studies and multiple topic-specific research-to-practice meetings. From an initial study on the criminal justice response to rape in 1973 to present-day initiatives on multidisciplinary responses, forensic sciences, and methodological queries, NIJ has made a significant contribution to current knowledge in the field of sexual violence. A strength of the program is its use of an interdisciplinary approach, encompassing the perspectives of those within the field of research and practice to guide the development of its research program. This article details the history and development of NIJ's program of research, highlighting key studies and their contribution to the field, and provides a framework for the continued study of sexual violence.