Maternal and paternal sensitivity: Key determinants of child attachment security examined through meta-analysis.

Sensitive caregiving behavior, which involves the ability to notice, interpret, and quickly respond to a child's signals of need and/or interest, is a central determinant of secure child-caregiver attachment. Yet, significant heterogeneity in effect sizes exists across the literature, and sources of heterogeneity have yet to be explained. For all child-caregiver dyads, there was a significant and positive pooled association between caregiver sensitivity and parent-child attachment (r = .25, 95% CI [.22, .28], k = 174, 230 effect sizes, N = 22,914). We also found a positive association between maternal sensitivity and child attachment security (r = .26, 95% CI [.22, .29], k = 159, 202 effect sizes, N = 21,483), which was equivalent in magnitude to paternal sensitivity and child attachment security (r = .21, 95% CI [.14, 27], k = 22, 23 effect sizes, N = 1,626). Maternal sensitivity was also negatively associated with all three classifications of insecure attachment (avoidant: k = 43, r = -.24 [-.34, -.13]; resistant: k = 43, r = -.12 [-.19, -.06]; disorganized: k = 24, r = -.19 [-.27, -.11]). For maternal sensitivity, associations were larger in studies that used the Attachment Q-Sort (vs. the Strange Situation), used the Maternal Behavior Q-Sort (vs. Ainsworth or Emotional Availability Scales), had strong (vs. poor) interrater measurement reliability, had a longer observation of sensitivity, and had less time elapse between assessments. For paternal sensitivity, associations were larger in older (vs. younger) fathers and children. These findings confirm the importance of both maternal and paternal sensitivity for the development of child attachment security and add understanding of the methodological and substantive factors that allow this effect to be observed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Exploring the role of OXTR gene methylation in attachment development: A longitudinal study.

The current study explored longitudinally whether oxytocin receptor gene methylation (OXTRm) changes moderated the association between parental sensitivity changes and children's attachment changes over three waves. Six hundred six Flemish children (10-12 years, 42.8%-44.8% boys) completed attachment measures and provided salivary OXTRm data on seven CpG sites. Their parents reported their sensitive parenting. Results suggest that OXTRm changes hardly link to attachment (in)security changes after the age of 10. Some support was found for interaction effects between parental sensitivity changes and OXTRm changes on attachment changes over time. Effects suggest that for children with increased OXTRm in the promotor region and decreased methylation in the inhibitor region over time, increased parental sensitivity was associated with increased secure attachment and decreased insecure attachment over time.

Neural processing of cry sounds in the transition to fatherhood: Effects of a prenatal intervention program and associations with paternal caregiving.

This study examined whether neural processing of infant cry sounds changes across the transition to fatherhood (i.e., from the prenatal to postnatal period), and examined whether an interaction-based prenatal intervention modulated these changes. Furthermore, we explored whether postnatal activation in brain regions showing transition or intervention effects was associated with sensitive care and involvement. In a randomized controlled trial, 73 first-time expectant fathers were enrolled, of whom 59 had at least 1 available fMRI scan. Intervention and transition effects on cry processing were analyzed in the amygdala and superior frontal gyrus (SFG) using linear mixed effect models with all available data and with intent-to-treat analyses. Further, exploratory whole-brain analyses were performed. ROI analyses suggest that the transition to fatherhood is characterized by decreasing activation in response to cry vs control sounds in the amygdala but not SFG. Exploratory whole-brain analyses also show a decrease in activation over the transition to fatherhood in the sensorimotor cortex, superior lateral occipital cortex, hippocampus, and regions of the default mode network. In the putamen and insula, larger decreases were found in fathers with more adverse childhood caregiving experiences. In regions showing transitional changes, higher postnatal activation was associated with more concurrent parenting sensitivity. No effects of the intervention were found. The decrease in activation from the pre- to postnatal period may reflect fathers' habituation to cry sounds over repeated exposures. The positive association between postnatal neural activation and paternal sensitive care suggest that continued sensitivity to cry sounds may be conducive to parenting quality.

The role of emotion recognition in the intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment: A multigenerational family study.

BACKGROUND: Understanding how child maltreatment is passed down from one generation to the next is crucial for the development of intervention and prevention strategies that may break the cycle of child maltreatment. Changes in emotion recognition due to childhood maltreatment have repeatedly been found, and may underly the intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment. OBJECTIVE: In this study we, therefore, examined whether the ability to recognize emotions plays a role in the intergenerational transmission of child abuse and neglect. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: A total of 250 parents (104 males, 146 females) were included that participated in a three-generation family study. METHOD: Participants completed an emotion recognition task in which they were presented with series of photographs that depicted the unfolding of facial expressions from neutrality to the peak emotions anger, fear, happiness, and sadness. Multi-informant measures were used to examine experienced and perpetrated child maltreatment. RESULTS: A history of abuse, but not neglect, predicted a shorter reaction time to identify fear and anger. In addition, parents who showed higher levels of neglectful behavior made more errors in identifying fear, whereas parents who showed higher levels of abusive behavior made more errors in identifying anger. Emotion recognition did not mediate the association between experienced and perpetrated child maltreatment. CONCLUSIONS: Findings highlight the importance of distinguishing between abuse and neglect when investigating the precursors and sequalae of child maltreatment. In addition, the effectiveness of interventions that aim to break the cycle of abuse and neglect could be improved by better addressing the specific problems with emotion processing of abusive and neglectful parents.

Attachment relationship quality with mothers and fathers and child temperament: An individual participant data meta-analysis.

A growing body of research suggests that, compared with single parent-child attachment relationships, child developmental outcomes may be better understood by examining the configurations of child-mother and child-father attachment relationships (i.e., attachment networks). Moreover, some studies have demonstrated an above-chance level chance of concordance between the quality of child-mother and child-father attachment relationships, and child temperament has been offered as a plausible explanation for such concordance. To assess whether temperament plays a role in the development of different attachment network configurations, in this preregistered individual participant data meta-analysis we tested the degree to which the temperament dimension of negative emotionality predicts the number of secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant, and disorganized attachment relationships a child has with mother and father. Data included in the linear mixed effects analyses were collected from seven studies sampling 872 children (49% female; 83% White). Negative emotionality significantly predicted the number of secure (d = -0.12) and insecure-resistant (d = 0.11), but not insecure-avoidant (d = 0.04) or disorganized (d = 0.08) attachment relationships. Nonpreregistered exploratory analyses indicated higher negative emotionality in children with insecure-resistant attachment relationships with both parents compared to those with one or none (d = 0.19), suggesting that temperament plays a small yet significant role in child-mother/child-father insecure-resistant attachment relationships concordance. Taken together, results from this study prompt a more in-depth examination of the mechanism underlying the small yet significantly higher chance that children with increased negative emotionality have for developing multiple insecure-resistant attachment relationships. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The Role of Psychopathology and Emotion Regulation in the Intergenerational Transmission of Childhood Abuse: A Family Study.

Previous studies have shown that parents with a history of childhood abuse are at increased risk of perpetrating child abuse. To break the cycle of childhood abuse we need to better understand the mechanisms that play a role. In a cross-sectional extended family design including three generations (N = 250, 59% female), we examined the possible mediating role of parental psychopathology and emotion regulation in the association between a history of childhood abuse and perpetrating child abuse. Parents' own history of childhood abuse was associated with perpetrating abuse toward their children, and externalizing (but not internalizing) problems partially mediated this association statistically. Implicit and explicit emotion regulation were not associated with experienced or perpetrated abuse. Findings did not differ across fathers and mothers. Findings underline the importance of (early) treatment of externalizing problems in parents with a history of childhood abuse, to possibly prevent the transmission of child abuse.

Oxytocin and state attachment responses to secure base support after stress in middle childhood.

We tried to replicate the finding that receiving care increases children's oxytocin and secure state attachment levels, and tested whether secure trait attachment moderates the oxytocin and state attachment response to care. 109 children (9-11 years old; M = 9.59; SD = 0.63; 34.9% boys) participated in a within-subject experiment. After stress induction (Trier Social Stress Test), children first remained alone and then received maternal secure base support. Salivary oxytocin was measured eight times. Secure trait and state attachment were measured with questionnaires, and Secure Base Script knowledge was assessed. Oxytocin levels increased after receiving secure base support from mother after having been alone. Secure state attachment changed less. Trait attachment and Secure Base Script knowledge did not moderate oxytocin or state attachment responses to support. This might mean that, regardless of the attachment history, in-the-moment positive attachment experiences might have a beneficial effect on trait attachment development in middle childhood.

Maternal cognitive functioning and psychopathology predict quality of parent-child relationship in the context of substance use disorder: A 15-month longitudinal study.

This longitudinal study aimed to investigate the role of maternal cognitive functioning and psychopathology in parent-child relationship quality during residential treatment for mothers with Substance Use Disorder (SUD), in order to identify factors that may enhance or limit intervention effects.We assessed cognitive functioning (Esame Neuropsicologico Breve-2 [ENB-2]) and psychopathology (Symptom Checklist-90 Revised [SCL-90-R]) in 60 mothers diagnosed with SUD (Mage = 30.13 yrs; SD = 6.79) at treatment admission. Parent-child relationship quality was measured during free-play interactions using the Emotional Availability Scales every three months from admission (Child Mage = 17.17m; SD = 23.60) to the 15th month of the residential treatment.A main effect of maternal psychopathology and an interaction effect of time and cognitive functioning were found. More maternal psychopathology predicted lower mother-child relationship quality. Mothers with higher cognitive functioning presented a better treatment trajectory, with an increase in mother-child relationship quality, whereas mothers with lower cognitive functioning showed a decrease in relationship quality after initial improvement.These findings suggest that maternal psychopathology and cognitive functioning may influence the treatment of parent-child relationships in the context of SUD, although causality is not yet established. Implications for assessment and intervention are discussed.

Configurations of mother-child and father-child attachment relationships as predictors of child language competence: An individual participant data meta-analysis.

An individual participant data meta-analysis was conducted to test pre-registered hypotheses about how the configuration of attachment relationships to mothers and fathers predicts children's language competence. Data from seven studies (published between 1985 and 2014) including 719 children (Mage : 19.84 months; 51% female; 87% White) were included in the linear mixed effects analyses. Mean language competence scores exceeded the population average across children with different attachment configurations. Children with two secure attachment relationships had higher language competence scores compared to those with one or no secure attachment relationships (d = .26). Children with two organized attachment relationships had higher language competence scores compared to those with one organized attachment relationship (d = .23), and this difference was observed in older versus younger children in exploratory analyses. Mother-child and father-child attachment quality did not differentially predict language competence, supporting the comparable importance of attachment to both parents in predicting developmental outcomes.

The polygenic and reactive nature of observed parenting.

In Wertz et al. (2019), parents' polygenic scores of educational attainment (PGS-EA) predicted parental sensitive responses to the child's needs for support, as observed in a dyadic task (i.e., observed sensitivity). We aimed to replicate and expand these findings by combining longitudinal data, child genotype data and several polygenic scores in the Generation R Study. Mother-child dyads participated in two developmental periods, toddlerhood (14 months old; n = 648) and early childhood (3-4 years old, n = 613). Higher maternal PGS-EA scores predicted higher observed sensitivity in toddlerhood (b = 0.12, 95% CI 0.03, 0.20) and early childhood (b = 0.16, 95% CI 0.08, 0.24). Child PGS-EA was significantly associated with maternal sensitivity in early childhood (b = 0.11, 95% CI 0.02, 0.21), and the effect of maternal PGS-EA was no longer significant when correcting for child PGS-EA. A latent factor of PGSs based on educational attainment, intelligence (IQ) and income showed similar results. These polygenic scores might be associated with maternal cognitive and behavioral skills that help shape parenting. Maternal PGSs predicted observed sensitivity over and above the maternal phenotypes, showing an additional role for PGSs in parenting research. In conclusion, we replicated the central finding of Wertz et al. (2019) that parental PGS-EA partially explains parental sensitivity. Our findings may be consistent with evocative gene-environment correlation (rGE), emphasizing the dynamic nature of parenting behavior across time, although further research using family trios is needed to adequately test this hypothesis.

Facing ostracism: micro-coding facial expressions in the Cyberball social exclusion paradigm.

BACKGROUND: Social exclusion is often measured with the Cyberball paradigm, a computerized ball-tossing game. Most Cyberball studies, however, used self-report questionnaires, leaving the data vulnerable to reporter bias, and associations with individual characteristics have been inconsistent. METHODS: In this large-scale observational study, we video-recorded 4,813 10-year-old children during Cyberball and developed a real-time micro-coding method measuring facial expressions of anger, sadness and contempt, in a multi-ethnic population-based sample. We estimated associations between facial expressions and self-reported negative feelings, explored associations of child characteristics such as sex and parental national origin with observed and self-reported feelings during social exclusion, and tested associations of observed and self-reported feelings during social exclusion with behavior problems at age 14. RESULTS: Facial expressions of sadness and anger were associated with self-reported negative feelings during the game, but not with such feelings after the game. Further, girls reported to have had less negative feelings during the game than boys, but no such sex-differences were found in total observed emotions. Likewise, children with parents of Moroccan origin reported less negative feelings during the game than Dutch children, but their facial expressions did not indicate that they were differently affected. Last, observed emotions related negatively to later internalizing problems, whereas self-report on negative feelings during the game related positively to later internalizing and externalizing problems. CONCLUSIONS: We show that facial expressions are associated with self-reported negative feelings during social exclusion, discuss that reporter-bias might be minimized using facial expressions, and find divergent associations of observed facial expressions and self-reported negative feelings with later internalizing problems.

Maternal distress and parenting during COVID-19: differential effects related to pre-pandemic distress?

BACKGROUND: Distinguishing whether and how pre-existing characteristics impact maternal responses to adversity is difficult: Does prior well-being decrease the likelihood of encountering stressful experiences? Does it protect against adversity's negative effects? We examine whether the interaction between relatively uniformly experienced adversity (due to COVID-19 experience) and individual variation in pre-existing (i.e., pre-pandemic onset) distress predicted mothers' pandemic levels of distress and insensitive caregiving within a country reporting low COVID-19 death rates, and strict nationwide regulations. METHOD: Fifty-one Singaporean mothers and their preschool-aged children provided data across two waves. Pre- pandemic onset maternal distress (i.e., psychological distress, anxiety, and parenting stress) was captured via self-reports and maternal sensitivity was coded from videos. Measures were repeated after the pandemic's onset along with questionnaires concerning perceived COVID-19 adversity (e.g., COVID-19's impact upon stress caring for children, housework, job demands, etc.) and pandemic-related objective experiences (e.g., income, COVID-19 diagnoses, etc.). Regression analyses (SPSS v28) considered pre-pandemic onset maternal distress, COVID-19 stress, and their interaction upon post-pandemic onset maternal distress. Models were re-run with appropriate covariates (e.g., objective experience) when significant findings were observed. To rule out alternative models, follow up analyses (PROCESS Model) considered whether COVID-19 stress mediated pre- and post-pandemic onset associations. Models involving maternal sensitivity followed a similar data analytic plan. RESULTS: Pre-pandemic maternal distress moderated the association between COVID-19 perceived stress and pandemic levels of maternal distress (ß = 0.22, p < 0.01) but not pandemic assessed maternal sensitivity. Perceived COVID-19 stress significantly contributed to post-pandemic onset maternal distress for mothers with pre-pandemic onset distress scores above (ß = 0.30, p = 0.05), but not below (ß = 0.25, p = 0.24), the median. Objective COVID-19 adversity did not account for findings. Post-hoc analyses did not suggest mediation via COVID-19 stress from pre-pandemic to pandemic maternal distress. CONCLUSIONS: Pre-existing risk may interact with subsequent perceptions of adversity to impact well-being. In combination with existing research, this small study suggests prevention programs should focus upon managing concurrent mental health and may highlight the importance of enhanced screening and proactive coping programs for people entering high stress fields and/or phases of life.

Parents' secure base script knowledge predicts observed sensitive caregiving and discipline toward twin children.

The present study investigated associations between parents' secure base script knowledge and parental sensitivity and sensitive discipline in 461 families with 922 same-sex twin children (Mage = 7.00, SD = 2.18). In addition, we explored whether the strength of the associations between parents' secure base script knowledge and parental sensitivity and sensitive discipline were similar for mono- and dizygotic twin siblings. Parental sensitivity was observed during a computerized version of a structured cooperative drawing task (Etch-A-Sketch). Sensitive discipline was observed during a "Don't touch task" or during a "Do-Don't task". Parental sensitivity and discipline strategies were observed twice, once with each twin sibling. Parents' knowledge of the secure base script was measured with the Attachment Script Assessment. Linear mixed model analyses showed that parents with more secure base script knowledge interacted with their twin children in a more sensitive manner and showed more sensitive discipline. These findings show for the first time that parents' secure base script knowledge predicts not only parental sensitivity but also sensitive discipline. Associations between parents' secure base script knowledge and parental sensitivity and sensitive discipline were not impacted by children's similarity in genetic makeup. Future longitudinal studies utilizing multiple measures of sensitivity and discipline across the infancy, childhood, and early adolescence periods could provide more insight into the continuity of relations between secure base script knowledge and parental sensitivity and sensitive discipline. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Sensitive responsiveness in expectant and new fathers.

Fathers have an increasingly important role in the family and contribute through their sensitive responsiveness to positive child development. Research on parenting more often included fathers as caregivers in the past two decades. We present a neurobiological model of sensitive responsive parenting with a role for fathers' hormonal levels and neural connectivity and processing of infant signals. We tested this model in a research program ("Father Trials") with correlational and randomized experimental studies, and we review the results of these studies. So far, interaction-focused behavioral interventions seem most promising in supporting fathers' sensitive responsiveness, even though the mechanisms are still uncharted.

Development of the virtual-VIPP and a systematic review of online support for families during the COVID-19 pandemic.

During the COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns made it impossible for parenting coaches to reach the families without digital means of communication. Several studies were initiated to transform existing parenting interventions into hybrid or fully online versions and to examine their feasibility, acceptability and efficacy. We present one such transformation in detail, the Virtual-VIPP which is based on Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD). Furthermore, we report a systematic review of 17 published trials with online versions of parenting programs. Overall, online parenting interventions seem feasible to implement, are well-received by most families, and to show equivalent effects to face-to-face approaches. Careful preparation of technicalities and monitoring of fidelity are prerequisites. Advantages of online parenting interventions are their potentially broader reach, more detailed process documentation, and better cost-utility balance. We expect that online parenting interventions are here to stay, but their efficacy needs to be rigorously tested.

Grandparental Support and Maternal Postpartum Mental Health : A Review and Meta-Analysis.

Support from grandparents plays a role in mothers' perinatal mental health. However, previous research on maternal mental health has mainly focused on influences of partner support or general social support and neglected the roles of grandparents. In this narrative review and meta-analysis, the scientific evidence on the association between grandparental support and maternal perinatal mental health is reviewed. Searches in PubMed, EMBASE, MEDLINE, Scopus, and PsycINFO yielded 11 empirical studies on N = 3381 participants, reporting on 35 effect sizes. A multilevel approach to meta-analysis was applied to test the association between grandparental support and maternal mental health. The results showed a small, statistically significant association (r = .16; 95% CI: 0.09-0.25). A moderator test indicated that the association was stronger for studies reporting on support from the maternal grandmother in particular (r = .23; 95% CI: 0.06-0.29). Our findings suggest that involved grandparents, in particular mother's own mother, constitute a protective factor for the development of maternal postpartum mental health problems. These findings have clear implications for interventions. Future studies should examine whether stimulating high-quality support from grandparents is a fruitful avenue for enhancing maternal postpartum mental health.

Parental protection in fathers with negative caregiving experiences: Heightened amygdala reactivity to infant threatening situations.

Parental protection is an important, yet understudied, aspect of parenting behavior. Predictors of the quality of protection and potential underlying neural mechanisms are still unknown. In this study, we examined whether negative caregiving experiences in fathers' own childhood are related to protective behavior and neural reactivity to infant threatening situations. Paternal protective behavior was measured with self- and partner-reported protective behavior and behavioral observations in an experimental set-up (auditory startling task) in 121 first-time fathers (mean age child = 19.35 weeks, SD = 11.27). Neural activation during exposure to videos of infant-threatening (vs. neutral) situations was measured with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). We found a significant and positive association between negative caregiving experiences and amygdala reactivity to infant-threatening situations. A history of negative caregiving experiences was not significantly related to reported or observed paternal protective behavior. Our findings suggest that fathers with negative caregiving experiences show emotional hyperreactivity to cues of infant threat.

Fathers' sensitive parenting enhanced by prenatal video-feedback: a randomized controlled trial using ultrasound imaging.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to evaluate an interaction-based prenatal parenting intervention program aimed at promoting parental sensitivity and involvement in expectant fathers using ultrasound images: Prenatal Video-Feedback Intervention to Promote Positive Parenting (VIPP-PRE). METHODS: In this randomized controlled trial, 73 first-time, healthy expectant fathers were enrolled. Participants were randomly assigned to the VIPP-PRE intervention (n = 39) or a dummy intervention (n = 34). Parental sensitivity was coded from video-recorded 10-min interactions with an infant simulator at a prenatal pretest and with fathers' own infant at a postnatal posttest. Prenatal and postnatal involvement was assessed via an application on participants' smartphones. RESULTS: Fathers receiving VIPP-PRE demonstrated increased sensitivity across the perinatal period, relative to fathers receiving a dummy intervention. Fathers' involvement with the infant increased significantly from the prenatal to postnatal period, regardless of the intervention. CONCLUSIONS: Prenatal video-feedback using ultrasound imaging of the unborn child has the potential to promote the quality of parenting in an important, but understudied, population and period: men in the transition to fatherhood. Future research should examine the long-term effectiveness of VIPP-PRE and its effectiveness in increasing parenting quality in at-risk families. IMPACT: This study identifies a brief and focused prenatal intervention using assisted interactions between the father and his baby by means of ultrasound imaging as a promising strategy to improve sensitive fathering in the early postnatal phase. Our study shows that pregnancy provides a window of opportunity for promoting prenatal involvement and bonding in expectant fathers, with potential long-term benefits for the future father-child relationship. Ultrasound measures are currently used to monitor fetal growth and development, but our results suggest that they may also create an opportunity for stimulating father-infant interaction to promote postnatal caregiving quality.

Exploring the meaning of unresolved loss and trauma in more than 1,000 Adult Attachment Interviews.

Unresolved states of mind regarding experiences of loss/abuse (U/d) are identified through lapses in the monitoring of reasoning, discourse, and behavior surrounding loss/abuse in response to the Adult Attachment Interview. Although the coding system for U/d has been widely used for decades, the individual indicators of unresolved loss/abuse have not been validated independently of the development sample. This study examined the psychometric validity of U/d, using individual participant data from 1,009 parent-child dyads across 13 studies. A latent class analysis showed that subsets of commonly occurring U/d indicators could differentiate interviewees with or without unresolved loss/abuse. Predictive models suggested a psychometric model of U/d consisting of a combination of these common indicators, with disbelief and psychologically confused statements regarding loss being especially important indicators of U/d. This model weakly predicted infant disorganized attachment. Multilevel regression analysis showed no significant association between ratings of unresolved other trauma and infant disorganized attachment, over and above ratings of unresolved loss/abuse. Altogether, these findings suggest that the coding system of U/d may have been overfitted to the initial development sample. Directions for further articulation and optimization of U/d are provided.