Endoplasmic reticulum acetyltransferases Atase1 and Atase2 differentially regulate reticulophagy, macroautophagy and cellular acetyl-CoA metabolism.

Nε-lysine acetylation in the ER lumen is a recently discovered quality control mechanism that ensures proteostasis within the secretory pathway. The acetyltransferase reaction is carried out by two type-II membrane proteins, ATase1/NAT8B and ATase2/NAT8. Prior studies have shown that reducing ER acetylation can induce reticulophagy, increase ER turnover, and alleviate proteotoxic states. Here, we report the generation of Atase1-/- and Atase2-/- mice and show that these two ER-based acetyltransferases play different roles in the regulation of reticulophagy and macroautophagy. Importantly, knockout of Atase1 alone results in activation of reticulophagy and rescue of the proteotoxic state associated with Alzheimer's disease. Furthermore, loss of Atase1 or Atase2 results in widespread adaptive changes in the cell acetylome and acetyl-CoA metabolism. Overall, our study supports a divergent role of Atase1 and Atase2 in cellular biology, emphasizing ATase1 as a valid translational target for diseases characterized by toxic protein aggregation in the secretory pathway.

Author Correction: Hsp70 and Hsp40 inhibit an inter-domain interaction necessary for transcriptional activity in the androgen receptor.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Hsp70 and Hsp40 inhibit an inter-domain interaction necessary for transcriptional activity in the androgen receptor.

Molecular chaperones such as Hsp40 and Hsp70 hold the androgen receptor (AR) in an inactive conformation. They are released in the presence of androgens, enabling transactivation and causing the receptor to become aggregation-prone. Here we show that these molecular chaperones recognize a region of the AR N-terminal domain (NTD), including a FQNLF motif, that interacts with the AR ligand-binding domain (LBD) upon activation. This suggests that competition between molecular chaperones and the LBD for the FQNLF motif regulates AR activation. We also show that, while the free NTD oligomerizes, binding to Hsp70 increases its solubility. Stabilizing the NTD-Hsp70 interaction with small molecules reduces AR aggregation and promotes its degradation in cellular and mouse models of the neuromuscular disorder spinal bulbar muscular atrophy. These results help resolve the mechanisms by which molecular chaperones regulate the balance between AR aggregation, activation and quality control.

Increased transport of acetyl-CoA into the endoplasmic reticulum causes a progeria-like phenotype.

The membrane transporter AT-1/SLC33A1 translocates cytosolic acetyl-CoA into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), participating in quality control mechanisms within the secretory pathway. Mutations and duplication events in AT-1/SLC33A1 are highly pleiotropic and have been linked to diseases such as spastic paraplegia, developmental delay, autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability, propensity to seizures, and dysmorphism. Despite these known associations, the biology of this key transporter is only beginning to be uncovered. Here, we show that systemic overexpression of AT-1 in the mouse leads to a segmental form of progeria with dysmorphism and metabolic alterations. The phenotype includes delayed growth, short lifespan, alopecia, skin lesions, rectal prolapse, osteoporosis, cardiomegaly, muscle atrophy, reduced fertility, and anemia. In terms of homeostasis, the AT-1 overexpressing mouse displays hypocholesterolemia, altered glycemia, and increased indices of systemic inflammation. Mechanistically, the phenotype is caused by a block in Atg9a-Fam134b-LC3ß and Atg9a-Sec62-LC3ß interactions, and defective reticulophagy, the autophagic recycling of the ER. Inhibition of ATase1/ATase2 acetyltransferase enzymes downstream of AT-1 restores reticulophagy and rescues the phenotype of the animals. These data suggest that inappropriately elevated acetyl-CoA flux into the ER directly induces defects in autophagy and recycling of subcellular structures and that this diversion of acetyl-CoA from cytosol to ER is causal in the progeria phenotype. Collectively, these data establish the cytosol-to-ER flux of acetyl-CoA as a novel event that dictates the pace of aging phenotypes and identify intracellular acetyl-CoA-dependent homeostatic mechanisms linked to metabolism and inflammation.

Differential effects of delayed aging on phenotype and striatal pathology in a murine model of Huntington disease.

The common neurodegenerative syndromes exhibit age-related incidence, and many Mendelian neurodegenerative diseases exhibit age-related penetrance. Mutations slowing aging retard age related pathologies. To assess whether delayed aging retards the effects of a mutant allele causing a Huntington's disease (HD)-like syndrome, we generated compound mutant mice, placing a dominant HD knock-in polyglutamine allele onto the slow-aging Snell dwarf genotype. The Snell genotype did not affect mutant huntingtin protein expression. Bigenic and control mice were evaluated prospectively from 10 to 100 weeks of age. Adult HD knock-in allele mice lost weight progressively with weight loss blunted significantly in male bigenic HD knock-in/Snell dwarf mice. Impaired balance beam performance developed significantly more slowly in bigenic HD knock-in/Snell dwarf mice. Striatal dopamine receptor expression was diminished significantly and similarly in all HD-like mice, regardless of the Snell genotype. Striatal neuronal intranuclear inclusion burden was similar between HD knock-in mice with and without the Snell genotype, whereas nigral neuropil aggregates were diminished in bigenic HD knock-in/Snell dwarf mice. Compared with control mice, Snell dwarf mice exhibited differences in regional benzodiazepine and cannabinoid receptor binding site expression. These results indicate that delaying aging delayed behavioral decline with little effect on the development of striatal pathology in this model of HD but may have altered synaptic pathology. These results indicate that mutations prolonging lifespan in mice delay onset of significant phenotypic features of this model and also demonstrate dissociation between striatal pathology and a commonly used behavioral measure of disease burden in HD models.

Impaired autophagy, chaperone expression, and protein synthesis in response to critical illness interventions in porcine skeletal muscle.

Critical illness myopathy (CIM) is characterized by a preferential loss of the motor protein myosin, muscle wasting, and impaired muscle function in critically ill intensive care unit (ICU) patients. CIM is associated with severe morbidity and mortality and has a significant negative socioeconomic effect. Neuromuscular blocking agents, corticosteroids, sepsis, mechanical ventilation, and immobilization have been implicated as important risk factors, but the causal relationship between CIM and the risk factors has not been established. A porcine ICU model has been used to determine the immediate molecular and cellular cascades that may contribute to the pathogenesis prior to myosin loss and extensive muscle wasting. Expression profiles have been compared between pigs exposed to the ICU interventions, i.e., mechanically ventilated, sedated, and immobilized for 5 days, with pigs exposed to critical illness interventions, i.e., neuromuscular blocking agents, corticosteroids, and induced sepsis in addition to the ICU interventions for 5 days. Impaired autophagy as well as impaired chaperone expression and protein synthesis were observed in the skeletal muscle in response to critical illness interventions. A novel finding in this study is impaired core autophagy machinery in response to critical illness interventions, which when in concert with downregulated chaperone expression and protein synthesis may collectively affect the proteostasis in skeletal muscle and may exacerbate the disease progression in CIM.

Diaphragm muscle weakness in an experimental porcine intensive care unit model.

In critically ill patients, mechanisms underlying diaphragm muscle remodeling and resultant dysfunction contributing to weaning failure remain unclear. Ventilator-induced modifications as well as sepsis and administration of pharmacological agents such as corticosteroids and neuromuscular blocking agents may be involved. Thus, the objective of the present study was to examine how sepsis, systemic corticosteroid treatment (CS) and neuromuscular blocking agent administration (NMBA) aggravate ventilator-related diaphragm cell and molecular dysfunction in the intensive care unit. Piglets were exposed to different combinations of mechanical ventilation and sedation, endotoxin-induced sepsis, CS and NMBA for five days and compared with sham-operated control animals. On day 5, diaphragm muscle fibre structure (myosin heavy chain isoform proportion, cross-sectional area and contractile protein content) did not differ from controls in any of the mechanically ventilated animals. However, a decrease in single fibre maximal force normalized to cross-sectional area (specific force) was observed in all experimental piglets. Therefore, exposure to mechanical ventilation and sedation for five days has a key negative impact on diaphragm contractile function despite a preservation of muscle structure. Post-translational modifications of contractile proteins are forwarded as one probable underlying mechanism. Unexpectedly, sepsis, CS or NMBA have no significant additive effects, suggesting that mechanical ventilation and sedation are the triggering factors leading to diaphragm weakness in the intensive care unit.

Preferential skeletal muscle myosin loss in response to mechanical silencing in a novel rat intensive care unit model: underlying mechanisms.

The muscle wasting and impaired muscle function in critically ill intensive care unit (ICU) patients delay recovery from the primary disease, and have debilitating consequences that can persist for years after hospital discharge. It is likely that, in addition to pernicious effects of the primary disease, the basic life support procedures of long-term ICU treatment contribute directly to the progressive impairment of muscle function. This study aims at improving our understanding of the mechanisms underlying muscle wasting in ICU patients by using a unique experimental rat ICU model where animals are mechanically ventilated, sedated and pharmacologically paralysed for duration varying between 6 h and 14 days. Results show that the ICU intervention induces a phenotype resembling the severe muscle wasting and paralysis associated with the acute quadriplegic myopathy (AQM) observed in ICU patients, i.e. a preferential loss of myosin, transcriptional down-regulation of myosin synthesis, muscle atrophy and a dramatic decrease in muscle fibre force generation capacity. Detailed analyses of protein degradation pathways show that the ubiquitin proteasome pathway is highly involved in this process. A sequential change in localisation of muscle-specific RING finger proteins 1/2 (MuRF1/2) observed during the experimental period is suggested to play an instrumental role in both transcriptional regulation and protein degradation. We propose that, for those critically ill patients who develop AQM, complete mechanical silencing, due to pharmacological paralysis or sedation, is a critical factor underlying the preferential loss of the molecular motor protein myosin that leads to impaired muscle function or persisting paralysis.

Gene expression and muscle fiber function in a porcine ICU model.

Skeletal muscle wasting and impaired muscle function in response to mechanical ventilation and immobilization in intensive care unit (ICU) patients are clinically challenging partly due to 1) the poorly understood intricate cellular and molecular networks and 2) the unavailability of an animal model mimicking this condition. By employing a unique porcine model mimicking the conditions in the ICU with long-term mechanical ventilation and immobilization, we have analyzed the expression profile of skeletal muscle biopsies taken at three time points during a 5-day period. Among the differentially regulated transcripts, extracellular matrix, energy metabolism, sarcomeric and LIM protein mRNA levels were downregulated, while ubiquitin proteasome system, cathepsins, oxidative stress responsive genes and heat shock proteins (HSP) mRNAs were upregulated. Despite 5 days of immobilization and mechanical ventilation single muscle fiber cross-sectional areas as well as the maximum force generating capacity at the single muscle fiber level were preserved. It is proposed that HSP induction in skeletal muscle is an inherent, primary, but temporary protective mechanism against protein degradation. To our knowledge, this is the first study that isolates the effect of immobilization and mechanical ventilation in an ICU condition from various other cofactors.