Circulating myomiRs in Muscle Denervation: From Surgical to ALS Pathological Condition.

ALS is a fatal neurodegenerative disease that is associated with muscle atrophy, motoneuron degeneration and denervation. Different mechanisms have been proposed to explain the pathogenesis of the disease; in this context, microRNAs have been described as biomarkers and potential pathogenetic factors for ALS. MyomiRs are microRNAs produced by skeletal muscle, and they play an important role in tissue homeostasis; moreover, they can be released in blood circulation in pathological conditions, including ALS. However, the functional role of myomiRs in muscle denervation has not yet been fully clarified. In this study, we analyze the levels of two myomiRs, namely miR-206 and miR-133a, in skeletal muscle and blood samples of denervated mice, and we demonstrate that surgical denervation reduces the expression of both miR-206 and miR-133a, while miR-206 but not miR-133a is upregulated during the re-innervation process. Furthermore, we quantify the levels of miR-206 and miR-133a in serum samples of two ALS mouse models, characterized by different disease velocities, and we demonstrate a different modulation of circulating myomiRs during ALS disease, according to the velocity of disease progression. Moreover, taking into account surgical and pathological denervation, we describe a different response to increasing amounts of circulating miR-206, suggesting a hormetic effect of miR-206 in relation to changes in neuromuscular communication.

Effects of IGF-1 isoforms on muscle growth and sarcopenia.

The decline in skeletal muscle mass and strength occurring in aging, referred as sarcopenia, is the result of many factors including an imbalance between protein synthesis and degradation, changes in metabolic/hormonal status, and in circulating levels of inflammatory mediators. Thus, factors that increase muscle mass and promote anabolic pathways might be of therapeutic benefit to counteract sarcopenia. Among these, the insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) has been implicated in many anabolic pathways in skeletal muscle. IGF-1 exists in different isoforms that might exert different role in skeletal muscle. Here we study the effects of two full propeptides IGF-1Ea and IGF-1Eb in skeletal muscle, with the aim to define whether and through which mechanisms their overexpression impacts muscle aging. We report that only IGF-1Ea expression promotes a pronounced hypertrophic phenotype in young mice, which is maintained in aged mice. Nevertheless, examination of aged transgenic mice revealed that the local expression of either IGF-1Ea or IGF-1Eb transgenes was protective against age-related loss of muscle mass and force. At molecular level, both isoforms activate the autophagy/lysosome system, normally altered during aging, and increase PGC1-α expression, modulating mitochondrial function, ROS detoxification, and the basal inflammatory state occurring at old age. Moreover, morphological integrity of neuromuscular junctions was maintained and preserved in both MLC/IGF-1Ea and MLC/IGF-1Eb mice during aging. These data suggest that IGF-1 is a promising therapeutic agent in staving off advancing muscle weakness.

Metabolic Changes Associated With Muscle Expression of SOD1G93A.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a severe neurodegenerative disorder, classified into sporadic or familial forms and characterized by motor neurons death, muscle atrophy, weakness, and paralysis. Among the familial cases of ALS, approximately 20% are caused by dominant mutations in the gene coding for superoxide dismutase (SOD1) protein. Of note, mutant SOD1 toxicity is not necessarily limited to the central nervous system. ALS is indeed a multi-systemic and multifactorial disease that affects whole body physiology and induces severe metabolic changes in several tissues, including skeletal muscle. Nevertheless, whether alterations in the plasticity, heterogeneity, and metabolism of muscle fibers are the result of motor neuron degeneration or alternatively occur independently of it remain to be elucidated. To address this issue, we made use of a mouse model (MLC/SOD1G93A) that overexpresses the SOD1 mutant gene selectively in skeletal muscle. We found an alteration in the metabolic properties of skeletal muscle characterized by alteration in fiber type composition and metabolism. Indeed, we observed an alteration of muscle glucose metabolism associated with the induction of Phosphofructokinases and Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4 expression. The upregulation of Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4 led to the inhibition of Pyruvate conversion into Acetyl-CoA. Moreover, we demonstrated that the MLC/SOD1G93A transgene was associated with an increase of lipid catabolism and with the inhibition of fat deposition inside muscle fibers. All together these data demonstrate that muscle expression of the SOD1G93A gene induces metabolic changes, along with a preferential use of lipid energy fuel by muscle fibers. We provided evidences that muscle metabolic alterations occurred before disease symptoms and independently of motor neuron degeneration, indicating that skeletal muscle is likely an important therapeutic target in ALS.

Skeletal muscle myopenia in mice model of bile duct ligation and carbon tetrachloride-induced liver cirrhosis.

Skeletal muscle myopathy is universal in cirrhotic patients, however, little is known about the main mechanisms involved. The study aims to investigate skeletal muscle morphological, histological, and functional modifications in experimental models of cirrhosis and the principal molecular pathways responsible for skeletal muscle myopathy. Cirrhosis was induced by bile duct ligation (BDL) and carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) administration in mice. Control animals (CTR) underwent bile duct exposure or vehicle administration only. At sacrifice, peripheral muscles were dissected and weighed. Contractile properties of extensor digitorum longus (EDL) were studied in vitro. Muscle samples were used for histological and molecular analysis. Quadriceps muscle histology revealed a significant reduction in cross-sectional area of muscle and muscle fibers in cirrhotic mice with respect to CTR. Kinetic properties of EDL in both BDL and CCl4 were reduced with respect to CTR; BDL mice also showed a reduction in muscle force and a decrease in the resistance to fatigue. Increase in myostatin expression associated with a decrease in AKT-mTOR expressions was observed in BDL mice, together with an increase in LC3 protein levels. Upregulation of the proinflammatory citochines TNF-a and IL6 and an increased expression of NF-kB and MuRF-1 were observed in CCl4 mice. In conclusion, skeletal muscle myopenia was present in experimental models of BDL and CCl4-induced cirrhosis. Moreover, reduction in protein synthesis and activation of protein degradation were the main mechanisms responsible for myopenia in BDL mice, while activation of ubiquitin-pathway through inflammatory cytokines seems to be the main potential mechanism involved in CCl4 mice.

Akt/mTOR pathway contributes to skeletal muscle anti-atrophic effect of aerobic exercise training in heart failure mice.

BACKGROUND: Exercise intolerance is one of the main clinical symptoms of heart failure (HF) and is associated with skeletal muscle wasting due to an imbalance between proteolysis and protein synthesis. In this study, we tested whether aerobic exercise training (AET) would counteract skeletal muscle atrophy by activating IGF-I/Akt/mTOR pathway in HF mice. METHODS: Sympathetic hyperactivity induced HF mice were assigned into 8-week moderate intensity AET. Untrained wild type and HF mice were used as control. Soleus cross sectional area was evaluated by histochemistry and motor performance by rotarod. 26S proteasome activity was assessed by fluorimetric assay, and components of IGF-I/Akt/mTOR pathway or myostatin pathway by qRT-PCR or immunoblotting. A different subset of mice was used to evaluate the relative contribution of mTOR inhibition (rapamycin) or activation (leucine) on AET-induced changes in muscle mass regulation. RESULTS: AET prevented exercise intolerance and impaired motor performance in HF mice. These effects were associated with attenuation of soleus atrophy. Rapamycin treatment precluded AET effects on soleus mass in HF mice suggesting the involvement of IGF signaling pathway in this response. In fact, AET increased IGF-I Ea and IGF-I Pan mRNA levels, while it reduced myostatin and Smad2 mRNA levels in HF mice. At protein levels, AET prevented reduced expression levels of IGF-I, pAkt (at basal state), as well as, p4E-BP1 and pP70(S6K) (leucine-stimulated state) in HF mice. Additionally, AET prevented 26S proteasome hyperactivity in HF mice. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, our data provide evidence for AET-induced activation of IGF-I/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway counteracting HF-induced muscle wasting.

Physical exercise in aging human skeletal muscle increases mitochondrial calcium uniporter expression levels and affects mitochondria dynamics.

Age-related sarcopenia is characterized by a progressive loss of muscle mass with decline in specific force, having dramatic consequences on mobility and quality of life in seniors. The etiology of sarcopenia is multifactorial and underlying mechanisms are currently not fully elucidated. Physical exercise is known to have beneficial effects on muscle trophism and force production. Alterations of mitochondrial Ca2+ homeostasis regulated by mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU) have been recently shown to affect muscle trophism in vivo in mice. To understand the relevance of MCU-dependent mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake in aging and to investigate the effect of physical exercise on MCU expression and mitochondria dynamics, we analyzed skeletal muscle biopsies from 70-year-old subjects 9 weeks trained with either neuromuscular electrical stimulation (ES) or leg press. Here, we demonstrate that improved muscle function and structure induced by both trainings are linked to increased protein levels of MCU Ultrastructural analyses by electron microscopy showed remodeling of mitochondrial apparatus in ES-trained muscles that is consistent with an adaptation to physical exercise, a response likely mediated by an increased expression of mitochondrial fusion protein OPA1. Altogether these results indicate that the ES-dependent physiological effects on skeletal muscle size and force are associated with changes in mitochondrial-related proteins involved in Ca2+ homeostasis and mitochondrial shape. These original findings in aging human skeletal muscle confirm the data obtained in mice and propose MCU and mitochondria-related proteins as potential pharmacological targets to counteract age-related muscle loss.

Monocyte/Macrophage-derived IGF-1 Orchestrates Murine Skeletal Muscle Regeneration and Modulates Autocrine Polarization.

Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) is a potent enhancer of tissue regeneration, and its overexpression in muscle injury leads to hastened resolution of the inflammatory phase. Here, we show that monocytes/macrophages constitute an important initial source of IGF-1 in muscle injury, as conditional deletion of the IGF-1 gene specifically in mouse myeloid cells (ϕIGF-1 CKO) blocked the normal surge of local IGF-1 in damaged muscle and significantly compromised regeneration. In injured muscle, Ly6C+ monocytes/macrophages and CD206+ macrophages expressed equivalent IGF-1 levels, which were transiently upregulated during transition from the inflammation to repair. In injured ϕIGF-1 CKO mouse muscle, accumulation of CD206+ macrophages was impaired, while an increase in Ly6C+ monocytes/macrophages was favored. Transcriptional profiling uncovered inflammatory skewing in ϕIGF-1 CKO macrophages, which failed to fully induce a reparative gene program in vitro or in vivo, revealing a novel autocrine role for IGF-1 in modulating murine macrophage phenotypes. These data establish local macrophage-derived IGF-1 as a key factor in inflammation resolution and macrophage polarization during muscle regeneration.

Postsurgical pain related to breast implant: reduction with lipofilling procedure.

BACKGROUND: After a review of clinical cases of the Unit of Plastic Surgery of the University of Siena, Italy, we found that 22 patients undergoing lipofilling for breast recontruction needed less pain drugs compared to 18 patients which did not undergo lipofilling. In this work, the postoperative pain was analyzed in two groups of patients: a cohort treated with prosthesis and a cohort treated with prosthesis implant together with a lipofilling procedure. PATIENTS AND METHODS: During the immediate postoperative period, a visual analog scale for pain was submitted to every patient every eight hours until they were discharged, then every day for a week, every two days during the second week and once a week in the first three months. The administration of analgesics was also registered. RESULTS: Pain intensity was lower in the group treated with prosthesis and lipofilling. CONCLUSION: Fat transplant is a procedure well-tolerated by patients, resulting in a lower rate of pain.

New insights into the relationship between mIGF-1-induced hypertrophy and Ca2+ handling in differentiated satellite cells.

Muscle regeneration involves the activation of satellite cells, is regulated at the genetic and epigenetic levels, and is strongly influenced by gene activation and environmental conditions. The aim of this study was to determine whether the overexpression of mIGF-1 can modify functional features of satellite cells during the differentiation process, particularly in relation to modifications of intracellular Ca2+ handling. Satellite cells were isolated from wild-type and MLC/mIGF-1 transgenic mice. The cells were differentiated in vitro, and morphological analyses, intracellular Ca2+ measurements, and ionic current recordings were performed. mIGF-1 overexpression accelerates satellite cell differentiation and promotes myotube hypertrophy. In addition, mIGF-1 overexpression-induced potentiation of myogenesis triggers both quantitative and qualitative changes to the control of intracellular Ca2+ handling. In particular, the differentiated MLC/mIGF-1 transgenic myotubes have reduced velocity and amplitude of intracellular Ca2+ increases after stimulation with caffeine, KCl and acetylcholine. This appears to be due, at least in part, to changes in the physico-chemical state of the sarcolemma (increased membrane lipid oxidation, increased output currents) and to increased expression of dihydropyridine voltage-operated Ca2+ channels. Interestingly, extracellular ATP and GTP evoke intracellular Ca2+ mobilization to greater extents in the MLC/mIGF-1 transgenic satellite cells, compared to the wild-type cells. These data suggest that these MLC/mIGF-1 transgenic satellite cells are more sensitive to trophic stimuli, which can potentiate the effects of mIGF-1 on the myogenic programme.

Electrical stimulation counteracts muscle decline in seniors.

The loss in muscle mass coupled with a decrease in specific force and shift in fiber composition are hallmarks of aging. Training and regular exercise attenuate the signs of sarcopenia. However, pathologic conditions limit the ability to perform physical exercise. We addressed whether electrical stimulation (ES) is an alternative intervention to improve muscle recovery and defined the molecular mechanism associated with improvement in muscle structure and function. We analyzed, at functional, structural, and molecular level, the effects of ES training on healthy seniors with normal life style, without routine sport activity. ES was able to improve muscle torque and functional performances of seniors and increased the size of fast muscle fibers. At molecular level, ES induced up-regulation of IGF-1 and modulation of MuRF-1, a muscle-specific atrophy-related gene. ES also induced up-regulation of relevant markers of differentiating satellite cells and of extracellular matrix remodeling, which might guarantee shape and mechanical forces of trained skeletal muscle as well as maintenance of satellite cell function, reducing fibrosis. Our data provide evidence that ES is a safe method to counteract muscle decline associated with aging.

IL-6 impairs myogenic differentiation by downmodulation of p90RSK/eEF2 and mTOR/p70S6K axes, without affecting AKT activity.

IL-6 is a multifaceted pleiotropic cytokine, which is produced by a variety of cell types and targets different cells and tissues. In physiological conditions, IL-6 can be locally and transiently produced by skeletal muscle and plays an important role in muscle homeostasis. Circulating IL-6 levels are normally very low or undetectable but are dramatically increased in several pathologic conditions. In this study, we aimed to define the potential molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of IL-6 on myogenic program. We explored the molecular mechanisms through which exogenous IL-6, or the conditioned medium from the murine C-26 adenocarcinoma cells (a cellular model that secretes high levels of IL-6 and induces cancer cachexia in mice), interferes with the myogenic program. Our study revealed that IL-6 induces the activation of the Stat3 signaling and promotes the downmodulation of the p90RSK/eEF2 and mTOR/p70S6K axes, while it does not affect the activation of AKT. We thus identified potential molecular mediators of the inhibitory effects of IL-6 on myogenic program.

Increased Plin2 expression in human skeletal muscle is associated with sarcopenia and muscle weakness.

Human aging is associated with a progressive loss of muscle mass and strength and a concomitant fat accumulation in form of inter-muscular adipose tissue, causing skeletal muscle function decline and immobilization. Fat accumulation can also occur as intra-muscular triglycerides (IMTG) deposition in lipid droplets, which are associated with perilipin proteins, such as Perilipin2 (Plin2). It is not known whether Plin2 expression changes with age and if this has consequences on muscle mass and strength. We studied the expression of Plin2 in the vastus lateralis (VL) muscle of both healthy subjects and patients affected by lower limb mobility limitation of different age. We found that Plin2 expression increases with age, this phenomenon being particularly evident in patients. Moreover, Plin2 expression is inversely correlated with quadriceps strength and VL thickness. To investigate the molecular mechanisms underpinning this phenomenon, we focused on IGF-1/p53 network/signalling pathway, involved in muscle physiology. We found that Plin2 expression strongly correlates with increased p53 activation and reduced IGF-1 expression. To confirm these observations made on humans, we studied mice overexpressing muscle-specific IGF-1, which are protected from sarcopenia. These mice resulted almost negative for the expression of Plin2 and p53 at two years of age. We conclude that fat deposition within skeletal muscle in form of Plin2-coated lipid droplets increases with age and is associated with decreased muscle strength and thickness, likely through an IGF-1- and p53-dependent mechanism. The data also suggest that excessive intramuscular fat accumulation could be the initial trigger for p53 activation and consequent loss of muscle mass and strength.

Age-dependent alteration in muscle regeneration: the critical role of tissue niche.

Although adult skeletal muscle is composed of fully differentiated fibers, it retains the capacity to regenerate in response to injury and to modify its contractile and metabolic properties in response to changing demands. The major role in the growth, remodeling and regeneration is played by satellite cells, a quiescent population of myogenic precursor cells that reside between the basal lamina and plasmalemma and that are rapidly activated in response to appropriate stimuli. However, in pathologic conditions or during aging, the complete regenerative program can be precluded by fibrotic tissue formation and resulting in functional impairment of the skeletal muscle. Our study, along with other studies, demonstrated that although the regenerative program can also be impaired by the limited proliferative capacity of satellite cells, this limit is not reached during normal aging, and it is more likely that the restricted muscle repair program in aging is presumably due to missing signals that usually render the damaged muscle a permissive environment for regenerative activity.

Generation of eX vivo-vascularized Muscle Engineered Tissue (X-MET).

The object of this study was to develop an in vitro bioengineered three-dimensional vascularized skeletal muscle tissue, named eX-vivo Muscle Engineered Tissue (X-MET). This new tissue contains cells that exhibit the characteristics of differentiated myotubes, with organized contractile machinery, undifferentiated cells, and vascular cells capable of forming "vessel-like" networks. X-MET showed biomechanical properties comparable with that of adult skeletal muscles; thus it more closely mimics the cellular complexity typical of in vivo muscle tissue than myogenic cells cultured in standard monolayer conditions. Transplanted X-MET was able to mimic the activity of the excided EDL muscle, restoring the functionality of the damaged muscle. Our results suggest that X-MET is an ideal in vitro 3D muscle model that can be employed to repair muscle defects in vivo and to perform in vitro studies, limiting the use of live animals.

MicroRNAs involved in molecular circuitries relevant for the Duchenne muscular dystrophy pathogenesis are controlled by the dystrophin/nNOS pathway.

In Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) the absence of dystrophin at the sarcolemma delocalizes and downregulates nitric oxide synthase (nNOS); this alters S-nitrosylation of HDAC2 and its chromatin association. We show that the differential HDAC2 nitrosylation state in Duchenne versus wild-type conditions deregulates the expression of a specific subset of microRNA genes. Several circuitries controlled by the identified microRNAs, such as the one linking miR-1 to the G6PD enzyme and the redox state of cell, or miR-29 to extracellular proteins and the fibrotic process, explain some of the DMD pathogenetic traits. We also show that, at variance with other myomiRs, miR-206 escapes from the dystrophin-nNOS control being produced in activated satellite cells before dystrophin expression; in these cells, it contributes to muscle regeneration through repression of the satellite specific factor, Pax7. We conclude that the pathway activated by dystrophin/nNOS controls several important circuitries increasing the robustness of the muscle differentiation program.

Isolation and culture of mouse satellite cells.

Muscle tissue culture provides a system for studying the growth and differentiation of muscle cells in a controlled environment. In mature muscle tissue, terminally differentiated myocytes form multinucleate syncytia in which structural and regulatory genes are expressed and the contractile apparatus is assembled. Adult muscle fibres are characterized by the presence of satellite cells. These are a quiescent population of myogenic cells that reside between the basal lamina and the plasmalemma of terminally differentiated muscle fibres and are rapidly activated in response to appropriate stimuli. This chapter describes protocols used in our laboratory for isolating and culturing satellite cells isolated from mouse skeletal muscles. In particular we discuss the technical aspect of satellite cell isolation, the methods necessary to enrich the satellite cell fraction, and the culture conditions which optimize proliferation and myotube formation of mouse satellite cells.

Induction of myogenic differentiation by SDF-1 via CXCR4 and CXCR7 receptors.

The stromal cell-derived factor (SDF)-1/CXC receptor 4 (CXCR4) axis has been shown to play a role in skeletal muscle development, but its contribution to postnatal myogenesis and the role of the alternate SDF-1 receptor, CXC receptor 7 (CXCR7), are poorly characterized. Western blot analysis and real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were performed to evaluate in vitro the effect of SDF-1 and CXCR4 and CXCR7 inhibition on myogenic differentiation. Proliferating myoblasts express CXCR4, CXCR7, and SDF-1; during myogenic differentiation, CXCR4 and CXCR7 levels are downregulated, and SDF-1 release is decreased. SDF-1 anticipates myosin heavy chain accumulation and myotube formation in both C2C12 myoblasts and satellite cells. Interestingly, inhibition of CXCR4 and CXCR7 signaling, either by drugs or RNA interfererence, blocks myogenic differentiation. Further, the CXCR4 antagonist, 4F-benzoyl-TN14003, inhibits myoblast cell cycle withdrawal and decreases the retinoblastoma gene (pRb) product accumulation in its hypophosphorylated form. Our experiments demonstrate that SDF-1 regulates myogenic differentiation via both CXCR4 and CXCR7 chemokine receptors.

Muscle involvement and IGF-1 signaling in genetic disorders: new therapeutic approaches.

In the last decade, dramatic progress has been made in elucidating the molecular defects underlying a number of muscle diseases. With the characterization of mutations responsible for muscle dysfunction in several inherited pathologies, and the identification of novel signaling pathways, subtle alterations in which can lead to significant defects in muscle metabolism, the field is poised to devise successful strategies for treatment of this debilitating and often fatal group of human ailments. Yet progress has been slow in therapeutic applications of our newly gained knowledge. The complexity of muscle types, the intimate relationship between structural integrity and mechanical function, and the sensitivity of skeletal muscle to metabolic perturbations have impeded rapid progress in successful clinical intervention. The relatively poor regenerative properties of striated muscle compound the devastating effects of muscle degeneration. Perhaps the most difficult hurdle is the sheer volume of tissue that must be treated to effect a significant improvement in quality of life. Recent studies on the role of insulin-like growth factor-1 in skeletal muscle growth and homeostasis have excited new interest in this important mediator of anabolic pathways and suggest promising new avenues for intervention in catabolic disease. In this review, we will discuss the potential therapeutic role of local insulin-like growth factor 1 in the treatment of muscle wasting associated with muscle diseases.

Generation of biologically active retro-genes upon interaction of mouse spermatozoa with exogenous DNA.

Mature spermatozoa of most animal species can spontaneously take up foreign DNA molecules which can be delivered to embryos upon fertilization. Following this procedure, transgenic animals of various species have been generated. We recently discovered a reverse transcriptase (RT) activity in mouse spermatozoa that can reverse-transcribe exogenous RNA molecules into cDNA copies. These cDNA copies are transferred to embryos at fertilization, mosaic propagated as non-integrated structures in tissues of founder individuals and further transmitted to F1 progeny. Reverse-transcribed sequences behave as functional genes, being correctly expressed in tissues of F0 and F1 animals. To learn more about this mechanism and further characterize the reverse transcription step, we have now incubated spermatozoa with a plasmid harboring a green fluorescent protein (EGFP) retrotransposition cassette interrupted by an intron in the opposite orientation to the EGFP gene. We found that reverse-transcribed spliced EGFP DNA sequences are generated in sperm cells and transmitted to embryos in IVF assays. After implantation in foster mothers, embryos developed into mice that expressed EGFP in the blood vessel endothelia of a variety of organs. The EGFP-encoding cDNA sequences were detected in positive tissues as extrachromosomal mosaic-propagated structures, maintained in low-copy number (<1 copy/genome), and mosaic transmitted from founders to the F1 progeny. These results indicate that an efficient machinery is present in mature spermatozoa, which can transcribe, splice, and reverse-transcribe exogenous DNA molecules. This mechanism is implicated in the genesis and non-Mendelian propagation of new genetic information besides that contained in chromosomes.