Predictors of pretraumatic stress during the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland.

BACKGROUND: Pretraumatic stress has the same symptoms as post-traumatic stress but instead pertains to anticipated threats. There is evidence that pretraumatic stress occurs among soldiers and pregnant people. OBJECTIVE: We analyzed correlates of pretraumatic stress concerning the threat of COVID-19 infection. METHOD: Our pilot study was cross-sectional (N = 74); our main study was longitudinal and consisted of three waves (N = 1067, N = 894, and N = 752 for Waves 1, 2, and 3, respectively). Our pilot study used correlation and multiple linear regression. Our main study used quadratic regression and a random intercept cross-lagged panel model. RESULTS: The pilot study found that pretraumatic stress was positively correlated with agreeableness (r = .24, p < .01) and negatively correlated with emotional stability (r = -.30, p < .01) and intellect/imagination (r = -.37, p < .01). The main study demonstrated that pretraumatic stress was positively correlated with other measures of mental health problems during the COVID-19 pandemic and with perceived positive aspects of the pandemic (r = .11, p < .01). There is evidence of a U-shaped relationship between pretraumatic stress and perceived positive aspects of the pandemic. A random intercept cross-lagged panel model analysis demonstrated that pretraumatic stress in Wave 2 was negatively predicted by levels of prosocial behavior in Wave 1 (B = -1.130, p < .01). CONCLUSION: Mental health professionals should take into account pretraumatic stress, not only as a possible consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak but more generally as a risk in situations that are new, difficult, and challenging for people.

Perception of the Presumption of Innocence in the Context of Media Depictions of Violence: The Role of Participant's Gender, Type of Crime, and Defendant's Socioeconomic Status.

The #MeToo movement has provoked a worldwide discussion about sexual violence. Some critics of the movement argue that it violates the presumption of innocence. In the current study, we investigated the determinants of the perception of the presumption of innocence in the context of media depictions of violence. We took into account previous studies that suggest that people view more favorably defendants in rape trials than they do men accused of other crimes and that people view more favorably defendants with a high socioeconomic status than they do those with a low socioeconomic status. The current study investigated whether the perception of the presumption of innocence is related to the type of crime (sexual vs. nonsexual assault) or to the socioeconomic status of the defendant (a famous writer vs. a maintenance worker). We conducted a vignette-based study with a sample of Polish people (N = 158). The type of crime did not influence the perception of the presumption of innocence; however, women who participated in the study endorsed the presumption of innocence to a greater extent when the defendant had a high socioeconomic status. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.

Myths Concerning Sexual Violence Toward Women in Poland, Hungary, and Norway in the Context of System Justification Theory: The Role of Beliefs in the Biological Origins of Gender Differences and Ambivalent Sexism.

The purpose of this study was to compare attitudes toward rape in Poland, Hungary, and Norway. Based on system justification theory, we examined whether country of origin predicts levels of rape myth acceptance, beliefs in the biological origins of gender differences, and ambivalent sexism. There is also some evidence that beliefs in the biological origins of gender differences predict rape myth among Polish students and that this relationship is mediated by hostile sexism. The current study aimed to test whether this model can be applied to other countries. Participants (N = 266) were from Poland, Hungary, and Norway. The study was conducted online. The dependent and independent variables were measured with questionnaires. Polish participants had significantly higher levels of rape myth acceptance, beliefs in the biological origins of gender differences, and ambivalent sexism than Norwegian and Hungarian participants. Our proposed model was confirmed: belief in the biological origins of gender differences was associated with rape myth acceptance, with hostile sexism as a mediator. Benevolent sexism also turned out to be a mediator between beliefs in the biological origins of gender differences and rape myth acceptance. The mediational model of the relationship between beliefs in the biological origins of gender differences and rape myth acceptance can be applied to all three countries. This result suggests that anti-rape educational interventions should take into account the role of culture and society in the construction of gender differences.

Eudaimonic and Hedonic Psychological Well-Being among Parents of Children with Cancer before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparative Cross-Sectional Study.

The main aim of this study was to analyze the eudaimonic and hedonic well-being of parents of children with cancer by considering the role of a global stressor-the COVID-19 pandemic. One group of parents was assessed during the COVID-19 pandemic, and the other was assessed before it occurred. It was hypothesized that there may be a cumulative effect of stress, with parents expressing lower well-being during the pandemic due to the accumulation of stress related to their child's illness and the pandemic. In total, 310 parents participated in the study. Following propensity score matching, 111 pairs were established. The results of the comparative analyses did not support the hypothesis, as the groups did not differ significantly in their reported levels of either eudaimonic (F (1.93) = 0.11, p = 0.75, ηp2= 0.001) or hedonic well-being (F (1.100) = 0.02, p = 0.89, ηp2 = 0.0001). These findings showed a limited effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the well-being of parents of children with cancer. The oncological disease of a child is likely to be the central and the strongest factor for the parents, meaning that an additional, global stressor does not cause deeper exacerbation of their well-being.

Barriers and facilitators of willingness to vaccinate against COVID-19: Role of prosociality, authoritarianism and conspiracy mentality. A four-wave longitudinal study.

AIM: We investigated longitudinal relations between individual willingness to undergo vaccination against COVID-19 and three social factors: conspiracy mentality, prosociality, and authoritarianism. METHOD: This longitudinal study comprised four measurement points. The first wave sample included 1130 responses and was representative of the Polish population in terms of gender, age, and place of residence. Analyses were performed using random intercept cross-lagged panel models. RESULTS: We observed bidirectional positive cross-lagged relationships between prosociality and willingness to undergo vaccination in the first three waves of measurement. Authoritarianism and conspiracy mentality translated into a lower willingness to vaccinate between the third and fourth points of measurement when the vaccination became a near-term possibility. CONCLUSIONS: Eliciting prosocial motivation to vaccinate can be paramount in overcoming vaccine hesitancy. Because conspiracy thinking may be a crucial barrier to willingness to be vaccinated, it is critical to focus on planning interventions and campaigns undermining conspiracy theories about COVID-19.

Factors associated with burnout in Polish healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Introduction: The COVID-19 pandemic has placed the healthcare system under substantial strain that has caused elevated psychological distress among healthcare workers (HCWs). Previous studies have found a high prevalence of burnout among HCWs exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic and have delineated some associated factors, but further research is needed. Little is known, for example, whether the economic status of HCWs or experiencing negative and positive emotions contribute to burnout. The present study was meant to fill this gap. Methods: A total of 412 HCWs (i.e.: nurses - 47%, physicians-28%, psychologists-14%, and other healthcare professionals-11%), aged 21-69 years (M = 36.63; SD = 11.76) participated in a web-based cross-sectional study. Data was collected from June to November 2020. The participants filled out measures assessing two dimensions of burnout (Exhaustion and Disengagement), depression, generalized anxiety, positive and negative emotions, along with the survey evaluating organizational aspects of their work during the pandemic. Results: Burnout thresholds were met by 54 and 66% of respondents for Disengagement and Exhaustion, respectively, which is high but comparable to levels found in other countries during the pandemic. Similarly to previous work, depression and anxiety were high in HCWs, with 24 % of them being in the risk group for clinical severity of depression and 34% in the risk group for a clinical generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Regression analysis showed that the intensity of negative emotions was the strongest predictor of Exhaustion, whereas the intensity of positive emotions was the strongest predictor of Disengagement. Depression and GAD symptoms were positively related to Exhaustion, and economic status was inversely related to Disengagement. Discussion: These results suggest that distress in HCWs during the pandemic was related to symptoms of burnout, whereas higher income and experiencing positive emotions were associated with reduced burnout levels. Our findings call for the development of burnout intervention programs that could build capacities for dealing with depression and other negative emotions and at the same time teach skills on how to increase positive emotions in HCWs.

The role of beliefs about the impact of illness on fertility and close relationships for psychopathological symptoms in women treated for hypothyroidism.

OBJECTIVE: As demonstrated in a pilot study, hypothyroidism has a highly stressful impact on some areas of functioning. This study aims to evaluate the connection between illness-related beliefs (IRBs) and the impact of hypothyroidism on fertility and close relationships, which were the strongest stressors, and the level of depressive, anxiety, and anger symptoms. METHODS: Two hundred and thirteen women being treated for hypothyroidism took part in an online survey and completed the modified Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, Hypothyroidism Symptoms Severity rating scales, and a measure of IRBs. Other relevant clinical data were also collected. RESULT: Mean levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone indicated that the women were euthyroid. Four groups of participants were identified based on IRBs. The group holding a strong IRB about the negative impact of illness only on close relationships scored significantly higher on depressive symptoms than women in the other groups. The group holding strong IRBs about the negative impact of illness on both close relationships and fertility scored significantly higher on anxiety symptoms than the women in the other groups. Regression analysis showed that IRBs about the negative impact of hypothyroidism predicted anxiety, depressive, and anger symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Negative IRBs about the impact of illness on fertility and close relationships contribute to increased levels of emotional distress symptoms in women being treated for hypothyroidism.

Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms and Posttraumatic Growth in Mothers of Children With Intellectual Disability - The Role of Intrusive and Deliberate Ruminations: A Preliminary Report.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to find out if mothers of children with intellectual disability (ID) demonstrate symptoms of posttraumatic stress and posttraumatic growth (PTG), and to define the role of intrusive and deliberate ruminations in this area. METHODS: The questionnaire-based study included 85 mothers of children with ID. Three standardized questionnaires were used: Impact of Event Scale-Revised, PTG Inventory, Event-Related Rumination Scale. RESULTS: Relative to the population norm in Poland, 52% of mothers of children with ID demonstrated at least moderate level of symptoms of posttraumatic stress. The mean level of PTG was high in this group. Intrusive ruminations and mothers' age served as a predictor for posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS). None of the types of rumination correlated with PTG. CONCLUSION: Mothers of children with ID demonstrated symptoms of both posttraumatic stress and PTG. Intrusive ruminations proved to be significant predictors for PTSS.

Smoking Status, Body Mass Index, Health-Related Quality of Life, and Acceptance of Life With Illness in Stable Outpatients With COPD.

Smoking and obesity are important factors related to the etiology and clinical features of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The aim of this study was to carry out deeper analyses of the links between smoking status and body mass index as well as of the links between individual dimensions of health-related quality of life (QoL) and acceptance of life with disease in patients with COPD. Information about BMI, smoking status, clinical features of COPD, a COPD assessment test, and airflow obstruction indicators were obtained from 105 outpatients attending a pulmonary clinic. Analysis of covariance demonstrated that the subgroups of patients distinguished based on smoking status and BMI differed significantly in severity of Cough, Dyspnea, Limitation of daily activities, Lack of self-confidence, and Quality of sleep, independently of sociodemographic factors and clinical features of COPD. The results of our study suggest a certain path of the potential effects of obesity and smoking status on QoL. Risky health behaviors, such as smoking and at-risk body mass, only affect some aspects of health-related QoL.

The role of psychological and medical variables in the process of adaptation to life with chronic illness in a group of COPD outpatients.

Many studies suggest that psychological factors play an important role in chronic diseases. This study aimed to describe the role of certain medical variables (airflow obstruction indicators), personal resources, coping strategies, and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in the process of adaptation to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The Brief COPE inventory, the General Self-Efficacy Scale, COPD Assessment Test, and the Acceptance of Life with the Disease Scale were completed by 111 outpatients. Groups of patients distinguished based on degree of airflow obstruction did not differ in frequency of use of coping strategies, General Self-efficacy, HRQoL, or level of acceptance of life with the disease. Groups distinguished in terms of frequency of the strategies used differed in terms of indicators of airflow obstruction and acceptance of life with the disease. General Self-efficacy was correlated with active coping, use of emotional support, and planning. The best predictors of Acceptance of Life with the Disease were coping strategies, HRQoL, and General Self-efficacy. The obtained data indicated that psychological factors play an important role in adapting to life with illness. This study also found that self-efficacy is a very significant personal resource which future psychological interventions for COPD could focus on.

The positive influence of psychological intervention on the level of anxiety and depression in dialysis patients: A pilot study.

Medical progress in dialysis therapy made it possible to treat patients with the end-stage renal disease for many years. But at the other side it may lead to profound changes in everyday life and may induce depression and anxiety. The research presented in this article explores the influence of psychological interventions on anxiety and depression levels in patients undergoing dialysis therapy. The experimental design included two experimental groups: cognitive intervention and cognitive/narrative intervention and one control group (standard treatment). In total, 139 participants aged 22-75, including 67 women and 72 men diagnosed with end-stage renal disease and treated with dialysis, were divided into a control group and two experimental groups. Two well-known tools were used in the study: Beck Depression Inventory and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. It was indicated that cognitive intervention may decrease the level of anxiety as a state, whereas cognitive/narrative intervention may decrease the level of anxiety as a state and the level of depression in dialysis patients. The stronger effect in the case of using narrative therapy may be the consequence of the fact that narrative therapy stimulates deeper analysis of the discussed issues (involving emotional level).

Gray's Personality Dimensions and Reasons for Voluntary Sleep Deprivation Among College Students.

Tendency toward healthy and health-risk behavior is associated with external factors, and healthy lifestyle affects its quality. Activation of Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and Behavioral Activation System (BAS) and its association with sleeping habits provides insight into the correlates of voluntary sleep deprivation. Aim of the study was to evaluate the relationship between BIS/BAS activity and reasons for voluntary sleep deprivation among young adults and to assess benefits and costs of decreasing sleep duration. Participants were 223 college students. The instruments used were the BIS/BAS Scale, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index and a newly developed survey. Statistical analysis wasconducted using Mann-Whitney's U-test and Spearman's rho correlation. Increased BIS activity is positively correlated with the frequency of foregoing sleep to study (r = 0.19; p < 0.01), while activation of BAS Fun Seeking is associated with more frequent voluntary sleep deprivation due to work (r = 0.18; p < 0.05), social life (r = 0.34; p < 0.01), and participation in various types of entertainment (p = 0.24; p < 0.01). Analysis yielded a positive correlation between BAS activity and the amount of perceived benefits of cutting down sleep (p = 0.26; p < 0.01 for BAS Fun Seeking and p = 0.25; p < 0.01 for BAS Reward Responsiveness) and the magnitude of BIS activation and the number of perceived losses (r = 0.19; p < 0.01). Individuals with a higher BAS activity in the Reward Responsiveness subscale more often report choosing sleep deprivation voluntarily (r = 0.14; p < 0.5). The quality of sleep is related to BIS/BAS activation. The reasons for voluntary sleep deprivation differ depending on the level of BAS/BIS activation.

Quality of Life and PTSD Symptoms, and Temperament and Coping With Stress.

Due to advances in medicine, a malignant neoplasm is a chronic disease that can be treated for a lot of patients for many years. It may lead to profound changes in everyday life and may induce fear of life. The ability to adjust to a new situation may depend on temperamental traits and stress coping strategies. The research presented in this paper explores the relationships between quality of life, PTSD symptoms, temperamental traits, and stress coping in a sample of patients diagnosed with cancer. One hundred and twenty nine participants aged 24-81 years, 69 females diagnosed with breast cancer and 60 males diagnosed with lung cancer completed Formal Characteristics of Behavior - Temperament Inventory, Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations, PTSD Inventory, and Quality of life SF-36 questionnaire. Higher level of emotional reactivity and higher level of perseveration was associated with lower emotional quality of life. Higher level of emotion oriented-coping and higher level of avoidant-distracted coping was associated with higher level of PTSD symptoms. Emotion-oriented coping and avoidant-distracted coping are ineffective in dealing with stress in the case of patients diagnosed with cancer, because they are associated with a higher level of PTSD symptoms. The significance of temperamental traits for quality of life in the situation of the patients is marginal. Control of specific factors concerned with current health and treatment status is needed the future research.

Mixed Psychological Changes Following Mastectomy: Unique Predictors and Heterogeneity of Post-traumatic Growth and Post-traumatic Depreciation.

Objectives: Post-traumatic growth (PTG) and its opposite-post-traumatic depreciation (PTD)-may be treated as important indicators of the patient quality of life. In the absence of studies on both, PTG and PTD in cancer patients, we investigated (1) coping strategies and support effectiveness as predictors of PTG and PTD in post-mastectomy women, (2) homogeneous classes with different intensity of PTG and PTD symptoms, and (3) correlates of class membership. Methods: Coping strategies (Brief COPE), support effectiveness (SSE-Q), PTG (PTGI), and PTD (negatively reworded items of PTGI) were measured in 84 post-mastectomy women (mean age = 62.27, SD = 8.38). Multiple regression, two-step cluster, and multinomial logistic regression were applied. Results: PTG and PTD had unique predictors: time since diagnosis and positive emotion-focused coping predicted PTG (R2 = 0.24), while negative emotion-focused and avoidance-focused coping and low support effectiveness were linked to PTD (R2 = 0.14). Four groups of PTG × PTD symptoms were identified: high PTG low PTD group (52.4%), low PTG low PTD group (17.9%), high PTG high PTD group (15.5%), and low PTG high PTD group (14.3%). Higher emotion- and avoidance-focused coping was characteristic for the high PTD low PTG group (R2 = 0.41). Conclusion: Our findings shed light on the coexistence and unique predictors of PTG and PTD after mastectomy, indicating heterogeneity in PTG and PTD levels among post-mastectomy women.

[Hormonal contraception use in social and psychological context].

INTRODUCTION: The purpose of this article is to consider, form psychological point of view, hormonal contraception and its effects on women's body and health. Beliefs and decisions of young women in this area are the main plane of these analyzes. This study reflects on their motivations to use or not to use hormonal contraception and rate its influence on their body. It was also verified, if there is any difference in self-esteem between women who use and who do not use hormonal contraception. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study was conducted amongst 95 women aged form 18 to 35. Two instruments were used in this study: Body Esteem Scale (BES) and questionnaire on hormonal contraception. RESULTS: The results show, that hormonal contraception is used only by 1/3 of the women. The main reason, why women use this method is contraception. Women regard, this method is inoffensive for them. Women do not use hormonal contraception mainly, because of their ideological views, religious beliefs and fears for their own health. Women, who use hormonal contraception acquire higher self-esteem in this aspects of their body, which can be control with diet or physical exercises. CONCLUSIONS: Women choose hormonal contraception because of its: high efficiency, extra health benefits and no difficulties in use. This contrasts with low popularity of this method amongst young women in the study. Verification, why women are anxious about their health and fertility, is believed to be an important issue. Moreover, it seems valuable to check, how important for women is a partner's role in terms of contraception.

Personality traits and coping styles in women with Mayer-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser syndrome.

INTRODUCTION: The purpose of the study was to determine whether women with Mayer-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser (MRKH) syndrome differ from healthy women as regards personality traits and coping styles. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Personality (the Big Five) and coping styles (problem-, emotion- and avoidance-focused coping) were analyzed in a group of 46 women with MRKH syndrome (age: M = 23.48; SD = 4.88), and in a group of 44 healthy women (age: M = 25.95; SD = 5.24), based on Polish versions of the NEO-FFI and CISS inventories. RESULTS: Results of analysis of covariance (ANCOVA, age, education and having a partner controlled) revealed significant differences in neuroticism level (F1.86 = 7.01, p < 0.01) and problem (F1.86 = 7.88, p < 0.01) and emotion-focused (F1.86 = 4.98, p < 0.05) coping styles. Differences in the level of neuroticism and instrumental coping was also revealed in analyses which took into account the time for which individuals have been aware of their illness: in women who have been aware of the MRKH diagnosis for more than 6 years, the level of neuroticism was higher (F1.85 = 3.97, p < 0.05) and the problem-focused coping style was at a lower level (F1.85 = 3.93, p < 0.05) than in healthy women. CONCLUSIONS: The results obtained make it possible to identify basic psychological problems related to MRKH syndrome, and to formulate proposals on psychological interventions addressed to this group of women. This study showed that with time negative psychological consequences become more severe, and thus those women should be provided with specialist help from the moment the diagnosis is made.

Psychological background of pro-health behavior.

In this study, psychological conditions of pro-health lifestyle behavior have been analyzed. A first research group consisted of 88 healthy people (44 males, 44 females) aged 19-39. Psychological analysis showed a positive correlation between the internal locus of control and adherence to healthy diets; a correlation extending to the knowledge about healthy food. Social exclusion appeared to reduce the possibility of reaping new knowledge about healthy diets and was negatively correlated with the tendency of using healthy diet or dietary supplements. A second group consisted of 70 women aged 20-65. The subjects in this group were oriented towards using a diet which reduces body mass; pro-health both physical and psychological objectives other than body mass reduction were secondary in this study. General self-esteem and physical self-esteem were found to be positively correlated with the involvement in physical activities and satisfaction from dietary intervention. These outcomes were negatively correlated with body mass. The study shows that the efficiency of prevention is related to the locus of control, self-efficacy expectation, faith in the result, and self-esteem. The information about the interconnections among these variables may be useful in building preventive behavioral programs.

Toward the clarification of ideas: medical futility, persistent/obstinate therapy and extra/ordinary means.

Despite reluctance of a part of medical society to accept the moral and/or legal permission to euthanasia, there is seemingly a common agreement on the need to resolve the problem of excessive therapy. Several ethical concepts are used to justify decisions to withhold/withdraw such treatment. Three of them are of particular value. The ordinary-extraordinary means distinction has a long tradition deeply-rooted in the Catholic medical ethics. During the last decades the concept of futile (or pointless) treatment has reached popularity within bioethical discourse. Also, slightly less common in use, the term 'obstinate therapy' and the relative concept seems to provide interesting insights into ethical debate. What is however to be emphasized is the ambiguity of meanings attached to these terms/concepts which prompt many bioethicists to reject these terms in favor of other concepts. In the present study a PubMed literature database review is done in order to recognize and then to classify the different ways of interpretation of the three concepts related to withholding/withdrawing excessive treatment. Retrieved interpretations of these concepts are evaluated in the light of an integrated model of moral justification. The undertaken analyses permit reaching the conclusion that the concepts which are the subject matter of this article can be properly defined and used only within the context of the so called holistic ethics and as an example of such i.e., a holistic approach to bioethics, the life's programs approach to bioethics is given.

[Hypospadias--a psychological view. Psychosocial and psychosexual implications]. / Spodziectwo w ujeciu psychologicznym. Aspekty psychospoleczne i psychoseksualne.

This theoretical research paper refers to the psychological consequences ofhypospadias, a male congenital deficiency of the urethra. Hypospadias is defined as an abnormal opening of the urethra on the underside of the penis and is a frequently found malformation with an incidence of 1 per 300 males. This malformation affects one of the most personal parts of the male anatomy and its psychological repercussions are undeniable. The vast majority of studies concerning this condition are found in the medical domain: surgical and pediatric urology and endocrynology. The difficulty in finding data about psychological implications of hypospadias, along with the lack of opportunities for discussing it was an objective to contribute a modest advancement in the field of psychology. Because of the fact that hypospadias is a psychological condition as well as a physical one, this theoretical paper discusses the influenceses of the condition on the patient's psychosocial (in the view of E. H. Erikson's theory) and psychosexual development (relation to the object theory of O. F. Kernberg).

[The emotional intelligence and coping with stress among medical students]. / Inteligencja emocjonalna a radzenie sobie ze stresem studentów medycyny.

BACKGROUND: The emotional intelligence is a basis for active, adaptive coping with stress. The persons with high emotional intelligence can better recognize potential stressors, can use emotions in coping with problem, as far as they cope in better way with negative emotions evoking in stressful situation. The authors verify the thesis that individual style of coping with stress is connected with the level of emotional intelligence. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study was conducted among second year students of The School of Medicine. Two standardized instruments were used in the study: Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (INTE) which measures emotional intelligence understood as an ability to recognize, understand and control emotions and Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS) which measures scoping with stress style understood as a trait of personality. RESULTS: The results confirm that persons with high level of emotional intelligence are more flexible in coping with stressors. It has been stated that people with higher results in case of emotional intelligence undertake more willingly active acts confronting with problem. Persons who have low results in case of emotional intelligence use mainly strategies focused on coping with their own emotions, as far as on escape style of coping. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the presented study may become a stimulus to creating prevention projects addressed to future physicians and also to the people who are now active on professional level. The projects could prevent preserving unconstructive ways of coping with occupational stress and indirectly improve efficacy and satisfaction connected with medical care.