Soybean oil organogelled emulsions as oral delivery systems of hydroxytyrosol and hydroxytyrosol alkyl esters.

Water-in-soybean oil organogelled emulsions (OGEs) were formulated as fat replacers and evaluated as delivery systems of hydroxytyrosol (HT, hydrophilic compound), hydroxytyrosol octanoate (HTC18, hydrophobic compound) and hydroxytyrosol decanoate (HTC10, with intermediate hydrophobicity and the highest antioxidant activity measured by conjugated autoxidizable triene assay). OGEs formulated with 55% of water and a ternary blend of candelilla wax, fully hydrogenated palm oil and monoacylglycerols showed mechanical properties similar to lard and solid-like behavior. The increase in the water content, together with a higher concentration of structuring agents in the oil phase, led to an increase in oil retention capacity and texture parameters. A slight desesterification of HTC10 and HTC18 was found during in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. The three bioactive compounds loaded in OGEs showed high bioaccessibility values (∼84%) at the end of digestion, regardless their chain length and hydrophobicity. These OGEs designed as fat replacers showed a great potential for vehiculation of both hydrophilic and lipophilic compounds.

Margarines: Historical approach, technological aspects, nutritional profile, and global trends.

Margarines are an expanding market worldwide due to large-scale commercial, lower cost, growth of bakery and confectionery markets, and seasonal independence. The fatty acid composition, solid fat content, consistency, and melting point of the fats used in margarine determine their functional properties. Due to its proven association with increased risk of cardiovascular diseases, the recommendations of the World Health Organization and the enactment of laws in several countries to eliminate industrially produced trans fatty acids (TFA) have resulted in the prohibition or progressive reduction in the use of partially hydrogenated fat. However, issues related to high levels of TFA and saturated fatty acids still constitute a challenge in the formulation of this product category. Current trends on margarine production addition of phytosterols, non-lipid components, organogels, and new interesterified fat bases are reviewed. This review aims to present a historical view and the technological evolution of margarines, including their production processes, formulations, and physical and nutritional characteristics, as well as legislation, and main trends.

Oleogel-based emulsions: Concepts, structuring agents, and applications in food.

This review discusses the application of oleogel technology in emulsified systems. In these systems of mimetic fats, water-in-oil or oil-in-water emulsions can be obtained, but, here, we cover emulsions with an oil continuous phase in detail. Depending on the percentage of water added to the oleogels, systems with different textures and rheological properties can be developed. These properties are affected by the characteristics and concentration of the added components and emulsion preparation methods. In addition, some gelators exhibit interfacial properties, resulting in more stable emulsions than those of conventional emulsions. Oleogel-based emulsion are differentiated by continuous and dispersed phases and the structuring/emulsification components. Crucially, these emulsions could be applied by the food industry for preparing, for example, meat products and margarines, as well as by the cosmetics industry. We present the different processes of emulsion elaboration, the main gelators used, the influence of the water content on the structuring of water-in-oleogel emulsions, and the structuring mechanisms (Pickering, network, and combined Pickering and network stabilization). Finally, we highlight the applications of these systems as alternatives for reducing processed food lipid content and saturated fat levels.

Organogels in low-fat and high-fat margarine: A study of physical properties and shelf life.

This study aimed to investigate the effect of the addition of organogels in low-fat and high-fat margarines during storage. Margarine formulations were made using water: oil ratios of 65:35 and 40:60 (w/w), and a lipid phase composed of organogel made with soybean oil, candelilla wax, fully hydrogenated palm oil, and mononoacylglycerols. The thermal stability, particle size, consistency, peroxide index, oil exudation, and microstructure of the margarines were evaluated for six months of storage. All margarines showed thermal stability at 35 °C, with no physical destabilization during the period studied. Both low-fat and high-fat margarines presented similar particle size distribution, with d3.3 around units of 5 µm. The peroxide index of the margarines ranged from 1.27 to 5.97 meq O2/Kg after six months of storage. High-fat margarines showed greater hardness and lower spreadability. The amount of water added to the formulations affected the stability, particle size, and texture of the margarines. It was possible to produce margarines with different fat contents and greater health appeal. The margarines with 60% and 35% fat exhibited 12.00 and 8.03% SFA; 32.63 and 18.20% PUFA; and 14.37 and 8.20% MUFA, respectively.

Effects of Post Anthesis Foliar Application of Sodium Selenite to Soybeans (Glycine max): Lipid Composition and Oil Stability.

This study aimed at determining whether applying selenium to soybean plants affected composition and oil oxidative stability of the seeds. Soybean was cultivated and sodium selenite (Selenite) added by foliar application (0, 200, or 300 g Selenite/Ha). Physical and chemical characterization was performed on the harvested seeds (thousand seed weight, bulk and true densities, fat, fiber, ash, protein, nitrogen free extract and selenium content). Soybean oil was tested in terms of Oxidation Induction Time (OIT), fatty acid, tocopherols, phytosterols, density, refractive index and saponification and iodine values. All seeds showed similar composition: crude fat (around 20%) and crude fiber (from 8.4 to 9.3%). Control seeds and those treated with 200 g Selenite/Ha contained higher protein concentration (37%), compared to the 300 g treatment (35.9%). All seeds showed similar ash content (7%). OIT values for both treatments were slightly lower (from 39.1 to 43.7 min) compared with 45.02 min in the control. Polyunsaturated fatty acids were higher for the 300 g Se/Ha (50.2%) compared with 48.2 to 49.4%of the other treatments. All samples showed similar phytosterols and tocopherols concentrations. Results showed that OIT values maintained an inverse relationship with selenium content, suggesting that foliar fertilization enhanced oil oxidation or acted as a pro-oxidant at the applied rates.

Physicochemical and rheological properties of soybean organogels: Interactions between different structuring agents.

High consumption of trans and saturated fats has been related to the development of cardiovascular diseases, justifying the application of organogels as possible substitutes for industrial fats. The aim of this study was to evaluate the physicochemical and rheological characteristics of soybean organogels that were prepared with 6% (w:w) of structuring components by a simplex centroid design, individually added, in binary and ternary associations with candelilla wax (CW), sorbitan monostearate (SMS) and fully hydrogenated palm oil (HPO). The formulated organogels were evaluated for hardness, solid content, and rheological behavior. The organogels containing a high proportion of HPO had higher solid content: 8.1% with the addition of isolated HPO and a solid content of 6.9% with the addition of HPO + CW. However, isolated use of HPO resulted in lower compression/extrusion strength (0.85 N) than that obtained with isolated CW (10.45 N). All organogels exhibited Hershel-Bulkley rheological behavior, except organogel 2 (containing only SMS), which showed pseudoplastic behavior. Thus, the structuring agents used to form the organogels are capable of changing the physical behavior of unsaturated lipids depending on whether a combination of CW + HPO was added, a ternary interaction with a higher proportion of CW, and the use of isolated CW as a structuring agent, resulting in organogels of greater stability and hardness.

Potential application of lipid organogels for food industry.

Controversial issues regarding the role of trans fatty acids in food have led to progressive changes in the legislation of several countries to include more information for consumers. In response, the industries decided to gradually replace trans fat in various products with the development of fatty bases of equivalent functionality and economic viability to partially hydrogenated fats, causing, however, a substantial increase in the content of saturated fatty acids in foods. Today, the lipid science aims to define alternatives to a problem that is widely discussed by health organizations worldwide: limit the saturated fat content in food available to the population. In this context, organogels have been indicated as a viable alternative to obtain semi-solid fats with reduced content of saturated fatty acids and compatible properties for food application. The objective of this review was to present the studies that address the lipid organogels as an alternative for food application.

Impact of Trans-Fats on Heat-Shock Protein Expression and the Gut Microbiota Profile of Mice.

Partially hydrogenated oils are known to cause metabolic stress and dyslipidemia. This paper explores a new dimension about the interaction between dietary trans-fats and the defense heat-shock protein (HSP) system, inflammation, and the gut microbiota of mice consuming a hyperlipidic diet containing partially hydrogenated vegetable oil free of animal fat. Five diet groups were installed: control diet, 2 hyperlipidic-partially hydrogenated-oil diets, each containing either casein or whey-protein hydrolysate (WPH) as protein source, and 2 consuming hyperlipidic-unhydrogenated-oil diets containing either WPH or casein as a protein source. The partially hydrogenated oil inhibited c-Jun NH2 -terminal kinase phosphorylation in the casein diets, but without altering κ-B kinase. Neither the lipid nor the protein had an influence on the proinflammatory toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) pathway, but the combination of the high-lipid content and WPH impaired glucose tolerance without altering insulin or glucose transporter-4 translocation. It was remarkable to observe that, contrary to the case of a common high-fat diet, the lard-free hyperlipidic diets were hardly able to invert the Bacteroidetes:Firmicutes phylum ratio. Our results suggest that, in the absence of lard, the intake of trans-fatty acids is less harmful than expected because it does not trigger TLR4-inflammation or pose great threat to the normal gut microbiota. WPH had the effect of promoting the expression of HSP90, HSP60, and HSP25, but did not prevent dysbiosis, when the diet contained the unhydrogenated oil. The partially hydrogenated oil also seemed to antagonize the ability of WPH to induce the expression of protective HSPs.

Rapid fingerprinting of sterols and related compounds in vegetable and animal oils and phytosterol enriched- margarines by transmission mode direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry.

Plant-derived sterols, often referred to as phytosterols, are important constituents of plant membranes where they assist in maintaining phospholipid bilayer stability. Consumption of phytosterols has been suggested to positively affect human health by reducing cholesterol levels in blood via inhibition of its absorption in the small intestine, thus protecting against heart attack and stroke. Sterols are challenging analytes for mass spectrometry, since their low polarity makes them difficult to ionize by both electrospray ionization (ESI) and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI), typically requiring derivatization steps to overcome their low ionization efficiencies. We present a fast and reliable method to characterize the composition of phytosterols in vegetable oils and enriched margarines. The method requires no derivatization steps or sample extraction procedures thanks to the use of transmission mode direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry (TM-DART-MS).

Food quality and authenticity screening via easy ambient sonic-spray ionization mass spectrometry.

This review is the first to summarize a decade of studies testing the use of easy ambient sonic-spray ionization mass spectrometry (EASI-MS) and its several sister techniques, Venturi (V-EASI), thermal imprinting (TI-EASI) and Spartan (S-EASI) mass spectrometry in food quality control and authentication. Since minimal or no sample preparation is required, such ambient desorption/ionization techniques have been shown to provide direct, fast and selective fingerprinting characterization at the molecular level based on the pools of the most typical components. They have also been found to be applicable on intact, undisturbed samples or on simple solvent extracts. Fundamentals of EASI-MS and its sister techniques, including mechanisms, devices, parameters and strategies, as well as the many applications reported for food analysis, are summarized and discussed.

Desorption/ionization efficiencies of triacylglycerols and phospholipids via EASI-MS.

Knowledge of the major effects governing desorption/ionization efficiency is required for the development and application of ambient mass spectrometry. Although all triacylglycerols (TAG) have the same favorable protonation and cationization sites, their desorption/ionization efficiencies can vary dramatically during easy ambient sonic-spray ionization because of structural differences in the carbon chain. To quantify this somewhat surprising and drastic effect, we have performed a systematic investigation of desorption/ionization efficiencies as a function of unsaturation and length for TAG as well as for diacylglycerols, monoacylglycerols and several phospholipids (PL). Affinities for Na(+) as a function of unsaturation level have also been assayed via comprehensive metadynamics calculations to understand the influence of this phenomenon on the ionization efficiency. The results suggest that dipole-dipole interactions within a carbon chain tuned by unsaturation sites govern ionization efficiency of TAG and PL.

Direct characterization of commercial lecithins by easy ambient sonic-spray ionization mass spectrometry.

Commercial lecithins are composed mainly of phospholipids and triacylglycerols. The analysis of the commercial lecithins, including their fraction of phospholipids, normally involves laborious and expensive protocols. Easy ambient sonic-spray ionization mass spectrometry (EASI-MS) is shown to be an efficient technique for the analysis of lipids. Samples of commercial lecithins including standards, refined, deoiled and modified soy lecithin were tested. Characteristic profiles of phosphatidylcholines and triacylglycerols are detected by EASI(+)-MS, whereas EASI(-)-MS provided phosphatidylethanolamines, glycophospholipids and free fatty acids profiles. Acetylated lecithins also displayed characteristic acetylated derivatives. EASI-MS data was also compared to MALDI-MS, and found to display richer compositional information. The industrial process applied to lecithin fabrication was also characterised via typical EASI-MS profiles. EASI-MS both in its positive and negative ion modes offers a direct, fast and efficient technique able to characterise commercial lecithin.

Instantaneous characterization of vegetable oils via TAG and FFA profiles by easy ambient sonic-spray ionization mass spectrometry.

A fast and reliable method is presented for the analysis of vegetable oils. Easy ambient sonic-spray ionization mass spectrometry (EASI-MS) is shown to efficiently desorb and ionize the main oil constituents from an inert surface under ambient conditions and to provide comprehensive triacylglyceride (TAG) and free fatty acid (FFA) profiles detected mainly as either [TAG + Na](+) or [FFA-H](-) ions. EASI(+/-)-MS analysis is simple, easily implemented, requires just a tiny droplet of the oil and is performed without any pre-separation or chemical manipulation. It also causes no fragmentation of TAG ions hence diacylglyceride (DAG) and monoacylglyceride (MAG) profiles and contents can also be measured. The EASI(+/-)-MS profiles of TAG and FFA permit authentication and quality control and can be used, for instance, to access levels of adulteration, acidity, oxidation or hydrolysis of vegetable oils in general.

[Lipid composition of marine shellfish berbigão Anomalocardia brasiliana (Gmelin, 1791) raw and cooked]. / Composição lipídica do molusco marinho berbigão Anomalocardia brasiliana (Gmelin, 1791) "in natura" e cozido.

The berbigão Anomalocardia brasiliana is a marine shellfish which is commoning consumed in the coastal region of Santa Catarina. However, there are limited available data on the composition of their fatty acids and sterols. The objetive of this study was to determine the lipid composition of the berbigão from Reserva Extrativista Marinha de Pirajubaé (REMAPI), Florianópolis/SC, Brasil, during the autumn and spring. The total lipid content was 1.21g% and 0.72g% in the autumn and spring, respectively. Several fatty acids were identified and quantified, including 20 fatty acids, 6 saturated (14:0, 15:0, 16:0, 17:0, 18:0, 20:0), 4 monounsaturated (16:1, 17:1, 18:1, 20:1) and 10 polyunsaturated (18:2, 18:3, 18:4, 20:2, 20:3, 20:4, 20:5, 22:4, 22:5, 22:6). There was a higher proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids in total than saturated and monounsaturated, regardless of season: 40.7% of polyunsaturated, 30.8% of saturated, 17.2% of monounsaturated in the autumn and 39.7% of polyunsaturated, 27.7% of saturated, 13.7% of monounsaturated in the spring. The cholesterol corresponded to a value of 94.38 mg% in the autumn and 76.75 mg% in the spring. Among the sterols were found campesterol, estigmasterol and beta-sitosterol, but in lower quantities than cholesterol. These results showed that the berbigão was not a significant source of lipids, revealing low levels of saturated fatty acids and cholesterol. Berbigão is recommended for daily consumption as part of a healthy diet due to it is safe levels of fats and cholesterol.

[Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and its relationship with cardiovascular disease and associated risk factors]. / Acido linoléico conjugado (CLA) e sua relação com a doença cardiovascular e os fatores de risco associados.

The term CLA (conjugated linoleic acid) corresponds to a mixture of positional and geometric isomers of linoleic acid, of which two (9/c/, 11/t/ and 10/t/, 12/c/) have biological activity. This review covers aspects related to CLA (sources, synthesis, distribution in human tissues, physiological activity), as well as its relationship with cardiovascular diseases. Most studies attribute the beneficial effects associated to the consumption of CLA to the reduction of risk factors for the development of cardiovascular diseases, such as the reduction of plasmatic triacylglycerols and cholesterol. Other research demonstrates the reduction of atherosclerotic processes. However, many studies indicate that CLA does not present beneficial effects or may even present negative effects. Thus, although there are a great number of studies related to CLA, we consider it premature to make any recommendation for the ingestion of these compounds, apart from those naturally present in a healthy diet.

Acido linoléico conjugado (CLA) e sua relaçao com a doença cardiovascular e os fatores de risco associados / Conjugated Linoleic Acid (Cla) And Its Relationship With Cardiovascular Disease And Associated Risk Factors

O termo CLA (ácido linoléico conjugado) corresponde a uma mistura de isômeros posicionais e geométricos do ácido linoléico, sendo que, dois destes isômeros (9c, 11t e 10t, 12c) possuem atividade biológica. Esta revisao aborda aspectos relacionados ao CLA (fontes, síntese, distribuiçao em tecidos humanos, atividades fisiológicas), bem como sua relaçao com as doenças cardiovasculares. A maioria dos estudos atribui efeitos benéficos associados com o consumo de CLA na reduçao de fatores de risco para o desenvolvimento de doenças cardiovasculares, como reduçao de colesterol e triacilgliceróis plasmáticos. Outras pesquisas demonstram a reduçao de processos ateroscleróticos. No entanto, vários estudos indicam que o CLA nao apresenta efeitos benéficos ou inclusive pode apresentar efeitos negativos. Portanto e a pesar do grande número de estudos relacionados ao CLA, considera-se prematura qualquer recomendaçao para a ingestao de estes compostos, além dos já presentes naturalmente nos alimentos de uma dieta variada

Caracterizacáo química da polpa e do óleo do marolo (Annona coriaceae) / Chemical characterization of the oil and pulp of marolo (Annona coriaceae)

O marolo (Annona coriaceae) é uma espécie pertencente à família Annonaceae, cuja distribuicâo na América do Sul acompanha a zona tropical, sendo nativo em regiô do cerrado brasileiro (Minas Gerais, Goiàs e Distrito Federal). Apesar da tendeê de extincâo, em funcâo de desmatamentos e da substituicâo dos pés por culturas de grande extensâo de terra, as frutas sâo bastante consumidas pela populacâo local e comercializadas em feiras e beiras de estrada. Entretanto a literatura nâo oferece nenhum dado da composicâo química destas frutas. Neste senteido foi feita a determinacâo dacomposicâo centesimal e do teor de vitamina C, vitamina A, e taninos na polpa do marolo amarelo, além da determinacâo das características físico-químicas do óleo das semestes. As determinacôes foram feitas e beiras de estrada. Entretanto a literatura ainda nâ ofrece nenhum dado da composicâo química destas frutas. Neste senteido foi feita a determinacâo da composicâo centesimal e do teor de vitamina C, vitamina A, e taninos na polpa do marolo amarelo, além da determinacâo das características físico-química do óleo das semestes. As determinacôes foran feitas em 5 lotes de frutas provenientes de regiâo de Alfenas, sul de Minas Gerais (safra de 1992). Encontrou-se uma composicâo média de 77 por ciento de umidade, 13 por ciento de acucares totais e 11 por ciento de acúcares redutores, 1 por ciento de proteína bruta, 3 por ciento de lipídeos, 5 por ciento de fibra e 1 por ciento de resíduos mineral fixo. Os teores de vitamina C e A foram 8,2 mg/100g e 117,5 RE/100g, respectivamente e o teor de tanino foi 245 mg/100g. O marolo apresentou, portanto, teores elevados em fibras e lipídeos quando comparados com a maioria das polpas de outras frutas. O teor de vitamina C foi equivalente aos encontrados em abacate, abacaxi e melancia, e o valor de vita,ina A equivalente aos encintrados em mamâo, pêssego, goiaba e várias outras frutas tropicais. A semente contém 45 por ciento de óleo em base seca. A composicâo e as características físico-químicas mostram que é possível produzir um óleo de boa qualidade, com grande potencial para o mercado de óleos finos, mas a presenca de alcalóides precisa ser melhor estudada. A eliminacâo destes compostos poderia ser experimentada pelo refino ou extracâo com prensas contínuas. Os resultados valorizam a boa qualidade de vendo estimular a preservacâo e até o cultivo da espécie

Productos hidrogenados no Brasil: Isomeros trans, características físico-químicas e composiçao em ácidos graxos / Brasiliam hidrogenated products: Transfatty acids , physico-chemical characteristics fatty acid composition

O mercado brasilero é constituído de uma amplavariedade de produtos hidrogenados para uso gerale e específico, principalmente a nível industrial. No presente trabalho foram estudadas 19 amostras de gorduras hidrogenadas para uso específico (shortenings) e a fraçao lipídica de 14 amostras de margarinas e 9 cremes vegetais. Nas amostras citadas foram realizadas determinaçoes de índice de iodo, ponto de amolecimento, teor de isomeros trans, teor de gordura sólida e composiçao em ácidos graxos. O teor de isomeros trans na maioria das amostras foi elevado, em torno de 30 por ciento, variado entre O e 62 por ciento. Propiedades termicas como o teor de gordura sólida e ponto de amolecimento apresentaram pouca semelhança entre os 3 grupos de amostras e entre as amostras. Aparentemente quase todas as gorduras comercializadas no Brasil sao produzidas a partir de misturas de óleos de soja com diferentes graus de hidrogenaçao