Olanzapine, risperidone and ziprasidone differently affect lysosomal function and autophagy, reflecting their different metabolic risk in patients.

The metabolic effects induced by antipsychotics in vitro depend on their action on the trafficking and biosynthesis of sterols and lipids. Previous research showed that antipsychotics with different adverse effects in patients cause similar alterations in vitro, suggesting the low clinical usefulness of cellular studies. Moreover, the inhibition of peripheral AMPK was suggested as potential aetiopathogenic mechanisms of olanzapine, and different effects on autophagy were reported for several antipsychotics. We thus assessed, in clinically-relevant culture conditions, the aetiopathogenic mechanisms of olanzapine, risperidone and ziprasidone, antipsychotics with respectively high, medium, low metabolic risk in patients, finding relevant differences among them. We highlighted that: olanzapine impairs lysosomal function affecting autophagy and autophagosome clearance, and increasing intracellular lipids and sterols; ziprasidone activates AMPK increasing the autophagic flux and reducing intracellular lipids; risperidone increases lipid accumulation, while it does not affect lysosomal function. These in vitro differences align with their different impact on patients. We also provided evidence that metformin add-on improved autophagy in olanzapine-treated cells and reduced lipid accumulation induced by both risperidone and olanzapine in an AMPK-dependent way; metformin also increased the production of bile acids to eliminate cholesterol accumulations caused by olanzapine. These results have different clinical implications. We demonstrated that antipsychotics with different metabolic impacts on patients actually have different mechanisms of action, thus supporting the possibility of a personalised antipsychotic treatment. Moreover, we found that metformin can fully revert the phenotype caused by risperidone but not the one caused by olanzapine, that still activates SREBP2.

A case of a childhood onset developmental encephalopathy with a novel de novo truncating variant in the Membrane Protein Palmitoylated 5 (MPP5) gene.

BACKGROUND: Membrane Protein Palmitoylated 5 (MPP5) is a highly conserved apical complex protein, essential for cell polarity. Defects in neuronal cell polarity are associated with neurologic disorders. Only three patients with heterozygous MPP5 de novo variants have been reported so far, with global developmental delay, behavioral changes and in only one case epileptic seizures. OBJECTIVE: To describe a new patient with a novel truncating de novo mutation in MPP5 and to characterize in detail the epileptic phenotype and electroencephalographic features of the encephalopathy. METHODS: We identified a novel truncating de novo mutation in MPP5 in a 44 year old patient by exome sequencing (p.Ser498Phefs*15). We retrospectively analyzed his clinical and instrumental data along a thirty-year follow up. RESULT: Our patient presents with generalized tonic-clonic seizures, myoclonic and clonic seizures, non-epileptic myoclonus, tremor, severe intellectual disability, mild face dysmorphic traits, and psychosis. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: We present a case of a childhood onset developmental encephalopathy with a likely-pathogenic variant in the MPP5 gene.. This represents the first complete description of the epileptic syndrome associated with the MPP5 gene.

Extreme phenotypic heterogeneity in non-expansion spinocerebellar ataxias.

Although the best-known spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are triplet repeat diseases, many SCAs are not caused by repeat expansions. The rarity of individual non-expansion SCAs, however, has made it difficult to discern genotype-phenotype correlations. We therefore screened individuals who had been found to bear variants in a non-expansion SCA-associated gene through genetic testing, and after we eliminated genetic groups that had fewer than 30 subjects, there were 756 subjects bearing single-nucleotide variants or deletions in one of seven genes: CACNA1A (239 subjects), PRKCG (175), AFG3L2 (101), ITPR1 (91), STUB1 (77), SPTBN2 (39), or KCNC3 (34). We compared age at onset, disease features, and progression by gene and variant. There were no features that reliably distinguished one of these SCAs from another, and several genes-CACNA1A, ITPR1, SPTBN2, and KCNC3-were associated with both adult-onset and infantile-onset forms of disease, which also differed in presentation. Nevertheless, progression was overall very slow, and STUB1-associated disease was the fastest. Several variants in CACNA1A showed particularly wide ranges in age at onset: one variant produced anything from infantile developmental delay to ataxia onset at 64 years of age within the same family. For CACNA1A, ITPR1, and SPTBN2, the type of variant and charge change on the protein greatly affected the phenotype, defying pathogenicity prediction algorithms. Even with next-generation sequencing, accurate diagnosis requires dialogue between the clinician and the geneticist.

A Novel De novo Heterozygous Mutation in the SON Gene Associated with Septo-optic Dysplasia: A New Phenotype.

Septo-optic dysplasia (SOD) syndrome is a rare congenital disorder characterized by a classic triad of optic nerve/chiasm hypoplasia, agenesis of septum pellucidum and corpus callosum, and hypoplasia of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis.Herein, we report the clinical case of 2-year-old boy presenting with psychomotor delay, nystagmus, congenital hypothyroidism, and a clinically relevant growth delay. The neuroradiological examination showed partial segmental agenesis of the corpus callosum, agenesis of the septum pellucidum, optic nerve hypoplasia, and a small pituitary gland with a small median pituitary stalk. A whole-exome sequencing analysis detected a novel heterozygous de novo variant c.1069_1070delAG in SON, predicted as likely pathogenic.To date, SON pathogenic variants have been described as responsible for Zhu-Tokita-Takenouchi-Kim (ZTTK) syndrome, a multisystemic neurodevelopmental disorder mainly characterized by intellectual disability, facial dysmorphisms, visual abnormalities, brain malformations, feeding difficulties, and growth delay. The herein described case is the first recognized clinic-radiological occurrence of SOD syndrome with hypothalamic-pituitary dysfunction in a patient carrying a SON gene variant, considered responsible of ZTTK syndrome, suggesting a possible relationship between SOD and SON gene alterations, never described so far, making the search for SON gene mutations advisable in patients with SOD.

Case report: A novel FARS2 deletion and a missense variant in a child with complicated, rapidly progressive spastic paraplegia.

Defects in FARS2 are associated with either epileptic phenotypes or a spastic paraplegia subtype known as SPG77. Here, we describe an 8-year-old patient with severe and complicated spastic paraplegia, carrying a missense variant (p.Pro361Leu) and a novel intragenic deletion in FARS2. Of note, the disease is unexpectedly progressing rapidly and in a biphasic way differently from the previously reported cases. Our study provides the first detailed molecular characterization of a FARS2 deletion and its underlying molecular mechanism, and demonstrates the need for combining different tools to improve the diagnostic rate.

Rescue of lysosomal function as therapeutic strategy for SPG15 hereditary spastic paraplegia.

SPG15 is a hereditary spastic paraplegia subtype caused by mutations in Spastizin, a protein encoded by the ZFYVE26 gene. Spastizin is involved in autophagosome maturation and autophagic lysosome reformation and SPG15-related mutations lead to autophagic lysosome reformation defects with lysosome enlargement, free lysosome depletion and autophagosome accumulation. Symptomatic and rehabilitative treatments are the only therapy currently available for patients. Here, we targeted autophagy and lysosomes in SPG15 patient-derived cells by using a library of autophagy-modulating compounds. We identified a rose of compounds affecting intracellular calcium levels, the calcium-calpain pathway or lysosomal functions, which reduced autophagosome accumulation. The six most effective compounds were tested in vivo in a new SPG15 loss of function Drosophila model that mimicked the reported SPG15 phenotype, with autophagosome accumulation, enlarged lysosomes, reduced free lysosomes, autophagic lysosome reformation defects and locomotor deficit. These compounds, namely verapamil, Bay K8644, 2',5'-dideoxyadenosine, trehalose, Small-Molecule Enhancer of Rapamycin 28 and trifluoperazine, improved lysosome biogenesis and function in vivo, demonstrating that lysosomes are a key pharmacological target to rescue SPG15 phenotype. Among the others, the Small-Molecule Enhancer of Rapamycin 28 was the most effective, rescuing both autophagic lysosome reformation defects and locomotor deficit, and could be considered as a potential therapeutic compound for this hereditary spastic paraplegia subtype.

Case Reports: Novel Missense Variants in the Filamin C Actin Binding Domain Cause Variable Phenotypes.

Filamin C is a large dimeric actin-binding protein, most prevalent in skeletal and cardiac muscle Z-discs, where it participates in sarcomere mechanical stabilization and intracellular signaling, interacting with numerous binding partners. Dominant heterozygous mutations of Filamin C gene cause several forms of myopathy and structural or arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy. In this report we describe clinical and molecular findings of two Italian patients, in whom we identified two novel missense variants located within the Filamin C actin binding domain. Muscle imaging, histological and ultrastructural findings are also reported. Our results underline the extreme inter- and intrafamilial variability of clinical manifestations, hence the need to extend the investigation also to asymptomatic relatives, and the relevance of a broad diagnostic approach involving muscle electron microscopy, skeletal muscle magnetic resonance imaging and next generation sequencing techniques.

Superior Cerebellar Atrophy: An Imaging Clue to Diagnose ITPR1-Related Disorders.

The inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptor type 1 (ITPR1) gene encodes an InsP3-gated calcium channel that modulates intracellular Ca2+ release and is particularly expressed in cerebellar Purkinje cells. Pathogenic variants in the ITPR1 gene are associated with different types of autosomal dominant spinocerebellar ataxia: SCA15 (adult onset), SCA29 (early-onset), and Gillespie syndrome. Cerebellar atrophy/hypoplasia is invariably detected, but a recognizable neuroradiological pattern has not been identified yet. With the aim of describing ITPR1-related neuroimaging findings, the brain MRI of 14 patients with ITPR1 variants (11 SCA29, 1 SCA15, and 2 Gillespie) were reviewed by expert neuroradiologists. To further evaluate the role of superior vermian and hemispheric cerebellar atrophy as a clue for the diagnosis of ITPR1-related conditions, the ITPR1 gene was sequenced in 5 patients with similar MRI pattern, detecting pathogenic variants in 4 of them. Considering the whole cohort, a distinctive neuroradiological pattern consisting in superior vermian and hemispheric cerebellar atrophy was identified in 83% patients with causative ITPR1 variants, suggesting this MRI finding could represent a hallmark for ITPR1-related disorders.

Clinical-Genetic Features Influencing Disability in Spastic Paraplegia Type 4: A Cross-sectional Study by the Italian DAISY Network.

Background and Objectives: Hereditary spastic paraplegias (HSPs) are a group of inherited rare neurologic disorders characterized by length-dependent degeneration of the corticospinal tracts and dorsal columns, whose prominent clinical feature is represented by spastic gait. Spastic paraplegia type 4 (SPG4, SPAST-HSP) is the most common form. We present both clinical and molecular findings of a large cohort of patients, with the aim of (1) defining the clinical spectrum of SPAST-HSP in Italy; (2) describing their molecular features; and (3) assessing genotype-phenotype correlations to identify features associated with worse disability. Methods: A cross-sectional retrospective study with molecular and clinical data collected in an anonymized database was performed. Results: A total of 723 Italian patients with SPAST-HSP (58% men) from 316 families, with a median age at onset of 35 years, were included. Penetrance was 97.8%, with men showing higher Spastic Paraplegia Rating Scale (SPRS) scores (19.67 ± 12.58 vs 16.15 ± 12.61, p = 0.009). In 26.6% of patients with SPAST-HSP, we observed a complicated phenotype, mainly including intellectual disability (8%), polyneuropathy (6.7%), and cognitive decline (6.5%). Late-onset cases seemed to progress more rapidly, and patients with a longer disease course displayed a more severe neurologic disability, with higher SPATAX (3.61 ± 1.46 vs 2.71 ± 1.20, p < 0.001) and SPRS scores (22.63 ± 11.81 vs 12.40 ± 8.83, p < 0.001). Overall, 186 different variants in the SPAST gene were recorded, of which 48 were novel. Patients with SPAST-HSP harboring missense variants displayed intellectual disability (14.5% vs 4.4%, p < 0.001) more frequently, whereas patients with truncating variants presented more commonly cognitive decline (9.7% vs 2.6%, p = 0.001), cerebral atrophy (11.2% vs 3.4%, p = 0.003), lower limb spasticity (61.5% vs 44.5%), urinary symptoms (50.0% vs 31.3%, p < 0.001), and sensorimotor polyneuropathy (11.1% vs 1.1%, p < 0.001). Increasing disease duration (DD) and abnormal motor evoked potentials (MEPs) were also associated with increased likelihood of worse disability (SPATAX score>3). Discussion: The SPAST-HSP phenotypic spectrum in Italian patients confirms a predominantly pure form of HSP with mild-to-moderate disability in 75% of cases, and slight prevalence of men, who appeared more severely affected. Early-onset cases with intellectual disability were more frequent among patients carrying missense SPAST variants, whereas patients with truncating variants showed a more complicated disease. Both longer DD and altered MEPs are associated with worse disability.

Clinical and genetic features of a cohort of patients with MFN2-related neuropathy.

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2A (CMT2A) is a rare inherited axonal neuropathy caused by mutations in MFN2 gene, which encodes Mitofusin 2, a transmembrane protein of the outer mitochondrial membrane. We performed a cross-sectional analysis on thirteen patients carrying mutations in MFN2, from ten families, describing their clinical and genetic characteristics. Evaluated patients presented a variable age of onset and a wide phenotypic spectrum, with most patients presenting a severe phenotype. A novel heterozygous missense variant was detected, p.K357E. It is located at a highly conserved position and predicted as pathogenic by in silico tools. At a clinical level, the p.K357E carrier shows a severe sensorimotor axonal neuropathy. In conclusion, our work expands the genetic spectrum of CMT2A, disclosing a novel mutation and its related clinical effect, and provides a detailed description of the clinical features of a cohort of patients with MFN2 mutations. Obtaining a precise genetic diagnosis in affected families is crucial both for family planning and prenatal diagnosis, and in a therapeutic perspective, as we are entering the era of personalized therapy for genetic diseases.

Monoallelic KIF1A-related disorders: a multicenter cross sectional study and systematic literature review.

BACKGROUND: Monoallelic variants in the KIF1A gene are associated with a large set of clinical phenotypes including neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders, underpinned by a broad spectrum of central and peripheral nervous system involvement. METHODS: In a multicenter study conducted in patients presenting spastic gait or complex neurodevelopmental disorders, we analyzed the clinical, genetic and neuroradiological features of 28 index cases harboring heterozygous variants in KIF1A. We conducted a literature systematic review with the aim to comparing our findings with previously reported KIF1A-related phenotypes. RESULTS: Among 28 patients, we identified nine novel monoallelic variants, and one a copy number variation encompassing KIF1A. Mutations arose de novo in most patients and were prevalently located in the motor domain. Most patients presented features of a continuum ataxia-spasticity spectrum with only five cases showing a prevalently pure spastic phenotype and six presenting congenital ataxias. Seventeen mutations occurred in the motor domain of the Kinesin-1A protein, but location of mutation did not correlate with neurological and imaging presentations. When tested in 15 patients, muscle biopsy showed oxidative metabolism alterations (6 cases), impaired respiratory chain complexes II + III activity (3/6) and low CoQ10 levels (6/9). Ubiquinol supplementation (1gr/die) was used in 6 patients with subjective benefit. CONCLUSIONS: This study broadened our clinical, genetic, and neuroimaging knowledge of KIF1A-related disorders. Although highly heterogeneous, it seems that manifestations of ataxia-spasticity spectrum disorders seem to occur in most patients. Some patients also present secondary impairment of oxidative metabolism; in this subset, ubiquinol supplementation therapy might be appropriate.

Refining the mutational spectrum and gene-phenotype correlates in pontocerebellar hypoplasia: results of a multicentric study.

BACKGROUND: Pontocerebellar hypoplasias (PCH) comprise a group of genetically heterogeneous disorders characterised by concurrent hypoplasia of the pons and the cerebellum and variable clinical and imaging features. The current classification includes 13 subtypes, with ~20 known causative genes. Attempts have been made to delineate the phenotypic spectrum associated to specific PCH genes, yet clinical and neuroradiological features are not consistent across studies, making it difficult to define gene-specific outcomes. METHODS: We performed deep clinical and imaging phenotyping in 56 probands with a neuroradiological diagnosis of PCH, who underwent NGS-based panel sequencing of PCH genes and MLPA for CASK rearrangements. Next, we conducted a phenotype-based unsupervised hierarchical cluster analysis to investigate associations between genes and specific phenotypic clusters. RESULTS: A genetic diagnosis was obtained in 43 probands (77%). The most common causative gene was CASK, which accounted for nearly half cases (45%) and was mutated in females and occasionally in males. The European founder mutation p.Ala307Ser in TSEN54 and pathogenic variants in EXOSC3 accounted for 18% and 9% of cases, respectively. VLDLR, TOE1 and RARS2 were mutated in single patients. We were able to confirm only few previously reported associations, including jitteriness and clonus with TSEN54 and lower motor neuron signs with EXOSC3. When considering multiple features simultaneously, a clear association with a phenotypic cluster only emerged for EXOSC3. CONCLUSION: CASK represents the major PCH causative gene in Italy. Phenotypic variability associated with the most common genetic causes of PCH is wider than previously thought, with marked overlap between CASK and TSEN54-associated disorders.

Epilepsia partialis continua associated with the p.Arg403Cys variant of the DNM1L gene: an unusual clinical progression with two episodes of super-refractory status epilepticus with a 13-year remission interval.

Dynamin-1-like (DNM1L) is a gene located on chromosome 12p11.21 that encodes for dynamin-related protein (DRP1), a GTPase involved in mitochondrial and peroxisomal fusion, which plays a pivotal role in brain development. The missense variant, p.Arg403Cys, is clinically associated with childhood-onset super-refractory status epilepticus, with either subsequent poor neurological outcome or death (described in 13 patients). We present a 20-year-old girl carrying this mutation with a history of two episodes of super-refractory focal myoclonic status epilepticus which manifested as epilepsia partialis continua (EPC) with a 13-year interval, during which she displayed moderate intellectual disability, social and school reintegration, without complete control of myoclonic manifestations. The first status, which occurred at the age of six, was associated with transient left side thalamic involvement and the second episode with right side transient basal ganglia hyperintensity on MRI. After the second status, a persistent vegetative state with both drug-resistant epilepsia partialis continua and reticular myoclonus endured; the MRI showed progressive brain atrophy. In contrast to previous published cases, this new case of childhood-onset DNM1L encephalopathy demonstrated biphasic clinical progression. The main features of our patient were EPC, super-refractory status epilepticus, and transient and migrating subcortical thalamic hyperintensity on MRI at onset. The unusual clinical course is also noticeable, indicating possible epigenetic and/or protective factors, without underestimating the progressive and genetic basis of this encephalopathy. Precise characterization of seizures and whole-exome sequencing are crucial in order to establish early diagnosis.

Long-term follow-up in a cohort of children with isolated corpus callosum agenesis at fetal MRI.

OBJECTIVE: This long-term retrospective follow-up study aimed to address the knowledge gap between prenatal diagnosis of complete isolated Agenesis of Corpus Callosum (cACC) at fetal MRI and postnatal neurodevelopmental outcome to improve prenatal counseling for parents. METHODS: Data on fetuses with isolated cACC from a single-center MRI database built up in two decades were considered. Detailed postnatal clinical, neuropsychological evaluations were performed and descriptions of available neuroradiological and genetic data were provided. RESULTS: Following a detailed neuropsychological evaluation and a long-term follow-up, the subsequent results emerged: 38 school-aged children (older than 6 years) of 50 (aged 2.5-15 years) showed normal intellectual functions (50%), intellectual disability (21%), and borderline intelligence quotient (29%). Deficits in motor functions (58%), executive functions (37%), language (61%), memory abilities (58%), and academic performances (53%) were found. Twenty-one percent of participants showed behavioral difficulties. Almost half of the participants underwent rehabilitation. Additional findings (21%) were detected at postnatal brain MRI, and a significant association between additional findings at postnatal imaging and abnormal neurodevelopmental outcome was observed. INTERPRETATIONS: This study supports the view that children with prenatal diagnosis of isolated cACC may present with several degrees of neurologic and neuropsychological impairment which become more evident only in their second decade of life. Postnatal MRI and detailed genetic analysis may add crucial information to prenatal data and substantially influence final judgment on the outcome and orient clinical management and counseling.

Acid Sphingomyelinase Controls Early Phases of Skeletal Muscle Regeneration by Shaping the Macrophage Phenotype.

Skeletal muscle regeneration is a complex process involving crosstalk between immune cells and myogenic precursor cells, i.e., satellite cells. In this scenario, macrophage recruitment in damaged muscles is a mandatory step for tissue repair since pro-inflammatory M1 macrophages promote the activation of satellite cells, stimulating their proliferation and then, after switching into anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages, they prompt satellite cells' differentiation into myotubes and resolve inflammation. Here, we show that acid sphingomyelinase (ASMase), a key enzyme in sphingolipid metabolism, is activated after skeletal muscle injury induced in vivo by the injection of cardiotoxin. ASMase ablation shortens the early phases of skeletal muscle regeneration without affecting satellite cell behavior. Of interest, ASMase regulates the balance between M1 and M2 macrophages in the injured muscles so that the absence of the enzyme reduces inflammation. The analysis of macrophage populations indicates that these events depend on the altered polarization of M1 macrophages towards an M2 phenotype. Our results unravel a novel role of ASMase in regulating immune response during muscle regeneration/repair and suggest ASMase as a supplemental therapeutic target in conditions of redundant inflammation that impairs muscle recovery.

Novel SPTBN2 gene mutation and first intragenic deletion in early onset spinocerebellar ataxia type 5.

In the present study, we describe two novel cases of SCA5 with early onset. The first one, carrying a novel heterozygous de novo missense mutation in SPTBN2 gene, showed a striking very severe cerebellar atrophy and reduction of volume of the pons at a very young age (16 months). The latter, carrying the first de novo intragenic deletion so far reported in SPTBN2 gene, showed a mild cerebellar atrophy involving the hemispheres and a later onset. In both cases, for the first time, a hyperintense signal of the dentate nuclei was observed.