Impact of Depressive Symptom Severity on Buprenorphine/Naloxone and Methadone Outcomes in People With Prescription-Type Opioid Use Disorder: Results From a Pragmatic Randomized Controlled Trial.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the impact of depressive symptom severity on opioid use and treatment retention in individuals with prescription-type opioid use disorder (POUD). METHOD: We analyzed data from a multi-centric, pragmatic, open-label, randomized controlled trial comparing buprenorphine/naloxone to methadone models of care in 272 individuals with POUD. Opioid use was self-reported every two weeks for 24 weeks using the Timeline Followback. Depressive symptom severity was self-reported with the Beck Depression Inventory at baseline, week 12 and week 24. RESULTS: Baseline depressive symptom severity was not associated with opioid use nor treatment retention. At week 12, moderate depressive symptoms were associated with greater opioid use while mild to severe depressive symptoms were associated with lowered treatment retention. At week 24, moderate depressive symptoms were associated with greater opioid use. CONCLUSIONS: Ongoing depressive symptoms lead to poorer outcomes in POUD. Clinicians are encouraged to use integrative approaches to optimize treatment outcomes. This study was registered in ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03033732) on January 27th, 2017, prior to participants enrollment.

Mediating effect of craving on the impact of buprenorphine/naloxone and methadone treatment on opioid use: Results from a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: The relationship between opioid craving and opioid use is unclear. We sought to determine to what extent craving mediated the relationship between opioid agonist therapy and changes in opioid use. METHODS: Data came from a pragmatic, 24-week, pan-Canadian, multi-centric, open-label, randomized controlled trial comparing flexible buprenorphine/naloxone take-home doses to standard supervised methadone models of care for the treatment of prescription-type opioid use disorder. Participants were randomly allocated to buprenorphine/naloxone or methadone models of care. 270 people with prescription-type opioid use disorder were included in analyses. There were 93 women (34.4%) and 2 transgender (0.7%) participants. Most participants were white (67.4%), 45.9% reported unstable living conditions, and 44.8% had psychiatric comorbidities. Generalized linear mixed models followed by mediation analysis estimated the direct effect of treatment group on Timeline Followback-reported next-week opioid use and the indirect effect through past 24-hour opioid craving measured using the Brief Substance Craving Scale at week 2, 6, 10, 14, 18 and 22. RESULTS: Upon mediation analysis, the average direct effect of treatment on opioid use was 0.465 (95 % CI = 0.183 to 0.751, p < 0.001). The average causal mediated effect was 0.144 (95 % CI = 0.021 to 0.110; p < 0.001). Craving accounted for 23.6 % of the effect of treatment on opioid use (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Past 24-hour craving was associated with increased next-week opioid use; however, craving only partially mediated the effect of buprenorphine/naloxone and methadone on next-week opioid use. Research is needed to develop a comprehensive understanding of factors mediating opioid use during opioid agonist therapy.

The Association Between Self-Reported Anxiety and Retention in Opioid Agonist Therapy: Findings From a Canadian Pragmatic Trial.

BACKGROUND: Prescription-type opioid use disorder (POUD) is often accompanied by comorbid anxiety, yet the impact of anxiety on retention in opioid agonist therapy (OAT) is unclear. Therefore, this study investigated whether baseline anxiety severity affects retention in OAT and whether this effect differs by OAT type (methadone maintenance therapy (MMT) vs. buprenorphine/naloxone (BNX)). METHODS: This secondary analysis used data from a pan-Canadian randomized trial comparing flexible take-home dosing BNX and standard supervised MMT for 24 weeks. The study included 268 adults with POUD. Baseline anxiety was assessed using the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), with BAI ≥ 16 indicating moderate-to-severe anxiety. The primary outcomes were retention in assigned and any OAT at week 24. In addition, the impact of anxiety severity on retention was examined, and assigned OAT was considered an effect modifier. RESULTS: Of the participants, 176 (65%) reported moderate-to-severe baseline anxiety. In adjusted analyses, there was no significant difference in retention between those with BAI ≥ 16 and those with BAI < 16 assigned (29% vs. 28%; odds ratio (OR) = 2.03, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.94-4.40; P = 0.07) or any OAT (35% vs. 34%; OR = 1.57, 95% CI = 0.77-3.21; P = 0.21). In addition, there was no significant effect modification by OAT type for retention in assigned (P = 0.41) or any OAT (P = 0.71). In adjusted analyses, greater retention in treatment was associated with BNX (vs. MMT), male gender identity (vs. female, transgender, or other), enrolment in the Quebec study site (vs. other sites), and absence of a positive urine drug screen for stimulants at baseline. CONCLUSIONS: Baseline anxiety severity did not significantly impact retention in OAT for adults with POUD, and there was no significant effect modification by OAT type. However, the overall retention rates were low, highlighting the need to develop new strategies to minimize the risk of attrition from treatment. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: This study was registered in ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03033732).

Differential effect of cannabis use on opioid agonist treatment outcomes: Exploratory analyses from the OPTIMA study.

INTRODUCTION: Conflictual evidence exists regarding the effects of cannabis use on the outcomes of opioid agonist therapy (OAT). In this exploratory analysis, we examined the effect of recent cannabis use on opioid use, craving, and withdrawal symptoms, in individuals participating in a trial comparing flexible buprenorphine/naloxone (BUP/NX) take-home dosing model to witnessed ingestion of methadone. METHODS: We analyzed data from a multi-centric, pragmatic, 24-week, open label, randomized controlled trial in individuals with prescription-type opioid use disorder (n = 272), randomly assigned to BUP/NX (n = 138) or methadone (n = 134). The study measured last week cannabis and opioid use via timeline-follow back, recorded at baseline and every two weeks during the study. Craving symptoms were measured using the Brief Substance Craving Scale at baseline, and weeks 2, 6, 10, 14, 18 and 22. The study measured opioid withdrawal symptoms via Clinical Opiate Withdrawal Scale at treatment initiation and weeks 2, 4, and 6. RESULTS: The mean maximum dose taken during the study was 17.3 mg/day (range = 0.5-32 mg/day) for BUP/NX group and 67.7 mg/day (range = 10-170 mg/day) in the methadone group. Repeated measures generalized linear mixed models demonstrated that cannabis use in the last week (mean of 2.3 days) was not significantly associated with last week opioid use (aß ± standard error (SE) = -0.06 ± 0.04; p = 0.15), craving (aß ± SE = -0.05 ± 0.08, p = 0.49), or withdrawal symptoms (aß ± SE = 0.09 ± 0.1, p = 0.36). Bayes factor (BF) for each of the tested models supported the null hypothesis (BF < 0.3). CONCLUSIONS: The current study did not demonstrate a statistically significant effect of cannabis use on outcomes of interest in the context of a pragmatic randomized-controlled trial. These findings replicated previous results reporting no effect of cannabis use on opioid-related outcomes.

Effects of Buprenorphine/Naloxone and Methadone on Depressive Symptoms in People with Prescription Opioid Use Disorder: A Pragmatic Randomised Controlled Trial.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of flexible take-home dosing of buprenorphine/naloxone (BUP/NX) and methadone standard model of care in reducing depressive symptoms in people with prescription-type opioid use disorder (POUD). This trial also evaluated whether improvements in depressive symptoms were mediated by opioid use. METHODS: Analyzed data came from the OPTIMA study (clinicaltrials.gov identifier: NCT03033732), a pragmatic randomised controlled trial comparing flexible take-home dosing of BUP/NX and methadone standard model of care for reducing opioid use in people with POUD. A total of 272 participants were recruited in four Canadian provinces. Participants were randomised 1:1 to BUP/NX or methadone. After treatment induction, past two-week opioid use was measured using the Timeline Followback every two weeks for a total of 24 weeks. Depressive symptoms were measured with the Beck Depression Inventory at baseline, weeks 12 and 24. RESULTS: Both BUP/NX and methadone significantly reduced depressive symptoms at week 12 (aß ± SE = -3.167 ± 1.233; P < 0.001) and week 24 (aß ± SE = -7.280 ± 1.285; P < 0.001), with no interaction between type of treatment and time (P = 0.284). Improvements in depressive symptoms were only partially mediated by a reduction in opioid use (proportion mediated = 36.8%; 95% confidence interval = -1.158 to -0.070; P = 0.015). CONCLUSIONS: BUP/NX and methadone showed similar effectiveness in decreasing comorbid depressive symptoms in people with POUD. This effect was partially explained by a reduction in opioid use. As both treatments seem equally effective, clinicians are encouraged to tailor the selection of OAT to patients' needs and characteristics.

Variations of cannabis-related adverse mental health and addiction outcomes across adolescence and adulthood: A scoping review.

Introduction: Evidence supporting associations between cannabis use and many health outcomes is growing, however it remains unclear how such associations vary across the lifespan. We therefore aim to answer the following questions: (1) Are the risks of cannabis's adverse effects on mental health and addiction-related outcomes different in adolescents than in adults? (2) What are the relationships between these cannabis's adverse effects and (a) an individual's age at first cannabis use, (b) age at assessment, and (c) duration of cannabis use? Methods: We searched Medline, Embase, CINAHL, and PsychINFO from inception to 18 October 2021. Two reviewers independently screened studies and descriptively synthesized results. Results: We included 140 studies. Cannabis effects on mental health and addiction-related outcomes were worse in adolescents, early cannabis initiators and cannabis users who consumed for longest periods. Evidence of worse long-term adverse effects in adolescents was substantial for psychosis, cannabis, and nicotine use disorders; mixed for depression, suicidality, other substance use and disorders; and limited for anxiety. Additionally, acute cannabis exposure had the opposite trend with adults more often reporting adverse effects than adolescents. Conclusion: The available evidence suggests that cannabis use should be delayed as late as possible in adulthood and shortened in duration across the lifespan to decrease the risk of negative outcomes, while emphasizing the need for adapted harm reduction approaches. This scoping review provides evidence on the role of age and duration of exposure as determinants of cannabis-related adverse effects, which may inform prevention and harm reduction strategies. Systematic review registration: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/BYG72.

Buprenorphine/naloxone and methadone effectiveness for reducing craving in individuals with prescription opioid use disorder: Exploratory results from an open-label, pragmatic randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Craving reduction is an important target in the treatment of prescription-type opioid use disorder (POUD). In this exploratory analysis, we compared the effectiveness of BUP/NX flexible model of care relative to methadone for craving reduction in individuals with POUD. METHODS: We analyzed data from a multicentric, pragmatic, 24-week open-label randomized controlled trial conducted in participants with POUD (N = 272) who were randomly assigned to BUP/NX model of care with flexible take-home dosing (n = 138) or the standard model of care with closely supervised methadone (n = 134). Treatments were prescribed and administered according to local guidelines, in diverse clinical settings. Craving was measured using the Brief Substance Craving Scale at baseline, week 2, 6, 10, 14, 18 and 22. RESULTS: Cravings decreased in both treatment groups over 22 weeks (BUP/NX adjusted mean difference = -5.52, 95% CI = -6.91 to -4.13; methadone adjusted mean difference = -3.95, 95% CI = -5.28 to -2.63; p < 0.001), and were overall lower in the BUP/NX group (adjusted mean = 4.04, 95% CI = 3.43-4.64) than the methadone group (adjusted mean = 5.13, 95% CI = 4.51-5.74; p < 0.001). The time by treatment group interaction (favoring BUP/NX) was statistically significant at week 2 (adjusted mean difference = -1.58, 95% CI = -3.13 to -0.03; p = 0.041). CONCLUSIONS: Compared to the standard methadone model of care, flexible take-home dosing of BUP/NX was associated with lower craving in individuals with POUD. These findings can contribute to guiding shared decision-making regarding OAT treatment in this population.

Preferences for research design and treatment of comorbid depression among patients with an opioid use disorder: A cross-sectional discrete choice experiment.

BACKGROUND: Up to 74 % of people with an opioid use disorder (OUD) will experience depression in their lifetime. Understanding and addressing the concept of preference for depression treatments and clinical trial designs may serve as an important milestone in enhancing treatment and research outcomes. Our goal is to evaluate preferences for depression treatments and clinical trial designs among individuals with an OUD and comorbid depression. METHODS: We evaluated preferences for depression treatments and clinical trial designs using an online cross-sectional survey including a best-best discrete choice experiment. We recruited 165 participants from opioid agonist treatment clinics and community-based services in Calgary, Charlottetown, Edmonton, Halifax, Montreal, Ottawa, Quebec City, St. John's and Trois-Rivières, Canada. RESULTS: Psychotherapy was the most accepted (80.0 %; CI: 73.9-86.1 %) and preferred (31.5 %; CI: 24.4-38.6 %) treatment. However, there was a high variability in acceptability and preferences of depression treatments. Significant predictors of choice for depression treatments were administration mode depending on session duration (p < 0.001), access mode (p < 0.001) and treatment duration (p < 0.001). Significant predictors of choice for clinical trial designs were allocation type (p = 0.008) and monetary compensation (p = 0.033). Participants preferred participating in research compared to non-participation (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Accessibility and diversity of depression interventions, including psychotherapy, need to be enhanced in addiction services to ensure that all patients can receive their preferred treatment. Ensuring proper monetary compensation and comparing an intervention of interest with an active treatment might increase participation of depressed OUD patients in future clinical research initiative.

A systematic review of technology-based psychotherapeutic interventions for decreasing cannabis use in patients with psychosis.

Persistent use of cannabis in persons with psychosis is associated with poor symptomatic and functional outcomes and increased healthcare costs. Face-to-face psychological interventions (e.g., Cognitive Behavioral Therapy- [CBT], Motivation Enhancement Therapy- [MET]) are widely used in treating problematic cannabis use. We aimed to comprehensively review the efficacy of technology-based psychological interventions (TBPIs) in decreasing cannabis use, the design of TBPIs, and TBPI-related preferences in individuals with psychosis. For the systematic review, we searched six major databases from their inception to November 27, 2019. We included empirical articles of quantitative and qualitative methodologies related to TBPIs in individuals with psychosis and cannabis misuse and used narrative synthesis to report results. Only eight articles were found showing that technology-based motivational and psycho-education interventions and cognitive enhancement therapy were minimally efficient in achieving cannabis abstinence or decreasing frequency of use. Qualitative exploratory methods and participatory action research were used to elicit patient and clinician preferences and TBPIs were tailored accordingly to improve cannabis use related outcomes. Research on TBPIs in individuals with psychosis and cannabis misuse is in its early phases. A significant research effort is needed for the development of adapted interventions for CUD to capitalize on the potential of web-based applications.