Metformin effect in models of inflammation is associated with activation of ATP-dependent potassium channels and inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-α production.

Metformin is an oral hypoglycemic drug widely used in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus. We have recently demonstrated that metformin exhibits activity in models of nociceptive and neuropathic pain. However, little is known about its effects in experimental models of inflammation and inflammatory pain. Thus, the present study aimed to evaluate the activity of metformin in experimental models of inflammation and inflammatory pain in mice, as well as the underlying mechanisms. Previous (1 h) per os (p.o.) administration of metformin (250, 500 or 1000 mg/kg) inhibited the mechanical allodynia and paw edema induced by intraplantar (i.pl.) injection of carrageenan (600 µg) and also the pleurisy induced by this stimulus (200 µg, intrapleural). In the model of mechanical allodynia and paw edema induced by carrageenan, metformin also exhibited activity when administered after (1 h) the inflammatory stimulus. Metformin (1000 mg/kg) reduced the production of tumor necrosis factor-α induced by i.pl. injection of carrageenan. Metformin antiallodynic effect was not affected by previous administration of naltrexone (5 or 10 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) or cyproheptadine (5 or 10 mg/kg, p.o). However, this effect was abolished by previous administration of glibenclamide (20 or 40 mg/kg, p.o). In conclusion, the results demonstrate the activity of metformin in models of inflammation and inflammatory pain. In addition, the results indicate that the activity of metformin may be mediated by activation of ATP-sensitive potassium channels and reduction of production of inflammatory mediators. Altogether, these results stimulate the conduction of studies aiming to evaluate whether metformin may be repositioned in the treatment of patients with painful and inflammatory disorders.

The phthalimide analogues N-3-hydroxypropylphthalimide and N-carboxymethyl-3-nitrophthalimide exhibit activity in experimental models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain.

BACKGROUND: Phthalimide analogues devoid of the glutarimide moiety exhibit multiple biological activities, thus making them candidates for the treatment of patients with different diseases, including those with inflammatory and painful disorders. In the present study, the activities of five phthalimide analogues devoid of the glutarimide moiety (N-hydroxyphthalimide, N-hydroxymethylphthalimide, N-3-hydroxypropylphthalimide, N-carboxy-3-methylphthalimide, N-carboxymethyl-3-nitrophthalimide) were evaluated in experimental models of acute and chronic inflammatory and neuropathic pain. METHODS: The phthalimide analogues were administered per os (po) in Swiss mice or Wistar rats. Nociceptive response induced by formaldehyde and mechanical allodynia induced by chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve or intraplantar (ipl) injection of complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) were used as experimental models of pain. RESULTS: N-carboxymethyl-3-nitrophthalimide (700 mg/kg, -1 h) inhibited the second phase of the nociceptive response induced by the intraplantar injection of formaldehyde in mice. N-3-hidroxypropylphthalimide (546 mg/kg, -1 h) inhibited both phases of the nociceptive response induced by formaldehyde. Treatment of rats with N-carboxymethyl-3-nitrophthalimide (700 mg/kg) or N-3-hydroxypropylphthalimide (546 mg/kg) inhibited the mechanical allodynia induced by CCI of the sciatic nerve or ipl injection of CFA in rats. Intraperitoneal administration of the opioid antagonist naltrexone (10 mg/kg, -1.5 h) attenuated the antinociceptive activity of N-carboxymethyl-3-nitrophthalimide (700 mg/kg) in the model of nociceptive response induced by formaldehyde. CONCLUSIONS: N-3-hydroxypropylphthalimide and N-carboxymethyl-3-nitrophthalimide, two phthalimide analogues devoid of the glutarimide moiety, exhibited activities in different experimental models of pain, including models of chronic inflammatory and neuropathic pain.

Metformin antinociceptive effect in models of nociceptive and neuropathic pain is partially mediated by activation of opioidergic mechanisms.

Metformin, an AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activator, is an oral hypoglycemic drug widely used to treat patients with type 2 diabetes. As AMPK plays a role in the nociceptive processing, investigating the effects induced by metformin in experimental models of pain is warranted. In the present study, we further evaluated the effects induced by metformin in models of nociceptive and neuropathic pain and investigated mechanisms that could mediate such effects. Metformin was administered per os (p.o.) in mice. Nociceptive response induced by heat (hot-plate) and mechanical allodynia induced by chronic constriction injury (CCI) were used as pain models. Naltrexone (intraperitoneal) and glibenclamide (p.o.) were used to investigate mechanisms mediating metformin effects. A single administration of metformin (500 or 1000 mg/kg) inhibited the nociceptive response in the hot-plate model. Single and repeated administration of metformin (250, 500 or 1000 mg/kg) inhibited the mechanical allodynia induced by CCI. Metformin (250, 500 or 1000 mg/kg) did not affect the time mice spent in the rota-rod apparatus. The activity of metformin (1000 mg/kg) in both pain models was attenuated by naltrexone (10 mg/kg), but not by glibenclamide. Concluding, metformin exhibited activity in models of nociceptive and neuropathic pain. In the model of neuropathic pain, preventive and therapeutic effects were observed. Activation of opioidergic pathways partially mediates metformin antinociceptive activity. Altogether, the results indicate that metformin should be further investigated aiming its repositioning in the treatment of patients with different painful conditions.

Nicorandil inhibits neutrophil recruitment in carrageenan-induced experimental pleurisy in mice.

Nicorandil is a drug characterized by the coupling of a nitric oxide (NO) donor to nicotinamide. We have previously demonstrated that nicotinamide exhibits activity in different models of pain and inflammation. Now, we investigated the effects induced by per os (p.o.) administration of nicorandil (25, 50 or 100mg/Kg) on neutrophil recruitment in a carrageenan-induced model of pleurisy in mice. Effects induced by nicorandil (100mg/kg) were compared with those induced by equimolar doses of nicotinamide (58mg/kg) and N-(2-hydroxyethyl)-nicotinamide (NHN; 79mg/kg). We also investigated whether effects on the production of inflammatory mediators play a role in the activity of nicorandil. P.o. nicorandil, 0.5h before and 1h after the i.pl. injection of carrageenan, reduced neutrophil recruitment. However, equimolar doses of nicotinamide or NHN failed to induce such effect. Single treatment (previous or late) with nicorandil (100mg/Kg, p.o.) also reduced neutrophils recruitment, although to a lesser extent when compared to the double treatment. Nicorandil reduced the concentrations of interleukin-1ß, CXCL-1 and prostaglandin E2 in the pleural exudate. Concluding, we demonstrated the activity of nicorandil in a model of pleurisy induced by carrageenan. This activity was characterized by reduction of the neutrophil accumulation and inhibition of production of inflammatory mediators. The effects induced by nicorandil on the leukocytes recruitment and production of inflammatory mediators contribute to a better understanding of its clinical benefits and indicate that these benefits may be due to its vasodilating and anti-inflammatory activities.

Activities of 2-phthalimidethyl nitrate and 2-phthalimidethanol in the models of nociceptive response and edema induced by formaldehyde in mice and preliminary investigation of the underlying mechanisms.

The activities of 2-phthalimidethyl nitrate (PTD-NO) and 2-phthalimidethanol (PTD-OH) were recently demonstrated in models of pain and inflammation. We expanded our investigation by evaluating their activities in models of nociceptive and inflammatory pain and inflammatory edema, the preliminary pharmacokinetic parameter for PTD-NO and the role of opioid and cannabinoid pathways in the activity of analogs. Per os (p.o.) administration of PTD-NO or PTD-OH, 1h before intraplantar injection of formaldehyde, inhibited both phases of the nociceptive response (500 and 750 mg/kg) and paw edema (125, 250, 500 and 750 mg/kg). After p.o. administration of PTD-NO, peak plasma concentrations of PTD-NO and PTD-OH were found 0.92 and 1.13 h, respectively. The plasma concentrations of PTD-NO were higher than those of PTD-OH. Intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of CB1 (AM251) or CB2 (AM630) cannabinoid receptor antagonists (4 or 8 mg/kg, -30 min) or opioid antagonist naltrexone (5 or 10mg/kg, -30 min) did not affect the antinociceptive activities of the analogs. AM251 (8 mg/kg, i.p., -30 min) attenuated the antiedematogenic activity of both analogs, while naltrexone (10mg/kg, i.p., -30 min) only attenuated the antiedematogenic activity of PTD-NO. The antiedematogenic activities of both analogs were not affected by the CB2 cannabinoid antagonist AM630 (4 or 8 mg/kg, i.p., -30 min). Concluding, we expanded the knowledge on the activities of PTD-NO and PTD-OH by showing that these phthalimide analogs also exhibit marked activity in models of nociceptive and inflammatory pain and inflammatory edema. Opioid and cannabinoid mechanisms partially mediate the anti-inflammatory, but not the antinociceptive activity.