Carbon Sequestration in Resin-Tapped Slash Pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) Subtropical Plantations.

Every year more than 150,000 tons of resin used in a myriad of industrial applications are produced by Brazilian plantations of Pinus elliottii Engelm. (slash pine), which are also used for timber. A pine tree can be tapped for resin over a period of several years. Resin is a complex mixture of terpenes, which are carbon-rich molecules, presumably influencing pine plantation carbon budgets. A total of 270 trees (overall mean DBH of 22.93 ± 0.11 cm) of 14-, 24-, and 26-year-old stands had their C content measured. Three different treatments (intact, wounded panels, and wounded + chemically stimulated panels, 30 trees each) were applied per site. Above- and belowground biomass, as well as resin yield, were quantified for two consecutive years. Data were statistically evaluated using normality distribution tests, analyses of variance, and mean comparison tests (p ≤ 0.05). The highest resin production per tree was recorded in the chemically stimulated 14-year-old stand. Tree dry wood biomass, a major stock of carbon retained in cell wall polysaccharides, ranged from 245.69 ± 11.73 to 349.99 ± 16.73 kg among the plantations. Variations in carbon concentration ranged from 43% to 50% with the lowest percentages in underground biomass. There was no significant difference in lignin concentrations. Soils were acidic (pH 4.3 ± 0.10-5.83 ± 0.06) with low C (from 0.05% to 1.4%). Significantly higher C stock values were recorded in pine biomass compared to those reported for temperate zones. Resin-tapping biomass yielded considerable annual increments in C stocks and should be included as a relevant component in C sequestration assessments of planted pine forests.

Mitigation of ammonia and greenhouse gases emissions from urea coated with oil shale residues in a silvopastoral system.

The objective of this work was to investigate the viability of using retorted oil shale as urea coating (U + ROS) in the decrease of N losses by ammonia (NH3-N) volatilization. The experiment was carried out in a silvopastoral system with a randomized block design with split-plots. The main treatments consisted of spatial arrangements of the trees, while the subdivision of the plots constituted the surface application of common urea (U) and retorted oil shale-coated urea (U + ROS) for the pasture. In addition to NH3 measurements, fluxes of N2O and CH4 in the soil were determined, as well as soil moisture and contents of mineral N (0-5 cm). Independently of tree spacing, the use of ROS along with urea (U + ROS) showed a mean decrease of 15.9% in the accumulated NH3 volatilization and 24.1% in the peaks of emission, although it was not significantly different from the U treatment (P < 0.10). In addition, it did not increase significantly the N2O and CH4 emissions, evidencing a potential to decrease N losses by ammonia volatilization, with no impact on greenhouse gases emissions from the soil.

Diversity of rhizobia, symbiotic effectiveness, and potential of inoculation in Acacia mearnsii seedling production.

Black wattle (Acacia mearnsii) is a forest species of significant economic importance in southern Brazil; as a legume, it forms symbiotic associations with rhizobia, fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Nonetheless, little is known about native rhizobia in soils where the species is cultivated. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the diversity and symbiotic efficiency of rhizobia nodulating A. mearnsii in commercial planting areas and validate the efficiency of a potential strain in promoting seedling development. To this end, nodules were collected from four A. mearnsii commercial plantations located in Rio Grande do Sul State, southern Brazil. A total of 80 rhizobia isolates were obtained from black wattle nodules, and thirteen clusters were obtained by rep-PCR. Higher genetic diversity was found within the rhizobial populations from the Duas Figueiras (H' = 2.224) and Seival (H' = 2.112) plantations. Twelve isolates were evaluated belonging to the genus Bradyrhizobium, especially to the species Bradyrhizobium guangdongense. The principal component analysis indicated an association between rhizobia diversity and the content of clay, Ca, Mg, and K. Isolates and reference strains (SEMIA 6163 and 6164) induced nodulation and fixed N via symbiosis with black wattle plants after 60 days of germination. The isolates DF2.4, DF2.3, DF3.3, SEMIA 6164, SEMIA 6163, CA4.3, OV3.4, and OV1.4 showed shoot nitrogen accumulation values similar to the N + control treatment. In the second experiment (under nursery conditions), inoculation with the reference strain SEMIA 6164 generally improved the growth of A. mearnsii seedlings, reinforcing its efficiency even under production conditions.

Nitrous oxide and methane emissions from soil under integrated farming systems in southern Brazil.

This study aimed at evaluating soil nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) emissions from integrated farming systems. Soil N2O and CH4 fluxes were assessed in a subtropical Cambisol in southern Brazil, using manual static chambers, over two years, in five farming systems (cropland, livestock, integrated crop-livestock, integrated livestock-forestry, and integrated crop-livestock-forestry). The study was conducted in four growing seasons: summer-1, winter-1, summer-2, winter-2. Integrated farming systems had lower soil N2O emissions than livestock. The observed reduction was possibly due to lower water-filled pore space (WFPS) in soils under integrated systems (average 59.5-64.7%, vs 70.4% in livestock) as indicated by correlation (r = 0.74). Cropland, including cover-crops and maize, also had lower N2O emission (by 40%) relative to livestock, of levels similar to those observed in integrated systems. Methane was consumed in soil, but it was not affected by farming systems, and offset only ~1.4% of the N2O emissions. In the rainiest season of summer-2, the soil had the highest WFPS (on average 71.4%) and thus the highest N2O emission (on average 9.79 kg N2O-N ha-1 season-1) and the lowest CH4 consumption (on average - 0.40 kg CH4-C ha-1 season-1); while the opposite trend occurred in the driest season of winter-2 (on average 57.3% WFPS; 0.64 kg N2O-N ha-1 season-1 and -0.90 kg CH4-C ha-1 season-1). Integrated farming systems including crop-livestock, livestock-forestry and crop-livestock-forestry reduced soil N2O emissions relative to sole livestock by 27-40%, but did not affect CH4 emissions. Seasonal variations of precipitation, and therefore WFPS were driving factors of the N2O and CH4 emissions. Overall, integrated farming systems show the potential to mitigate soil N2O emission compared to livestock system.

Greenhouse gas emissions and C costs of N release associated with cover crop decomposition are plant specific and depend on soil moisture: A microcosm study.

Cover cropping is used to improve soil quality and increase N inputs in agricultural systems, but it also may enhance greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions. Here, a 47-d incubation study was conducted to track the decomposition process and evaluate GHG emissions and its drivers and to calculate the C costs of residue-derived N released following the addition of residues from cover crops (pigeon pea, cowpea, lablab bean, vetch, and black oat) and maize under two water-filled pore space (WFPS) levels (40 and 70%). For both WFPS levels, the increase in cumulative CO2 fluxes in plots that received residues is mainly related with the increment of potentially mineralizable C. Crop residues increased the global warming potential (GWP) under both WFPS levels, with CO2 emissions accounting for ≥98% of the GWP at 40% WFPS. At 70% WFPS, the GPW increment was driven by a notable increase in N2 O emissions. The contribution of CH4 in the GWP emissions was negligible for all the crop residues evaluated. Principal component analysis highlighted that the optimal conditions for production and release are specific for each GHG. The cleaner N source was cowpea at 40% WFPS, which produced only 17.7 kg CO2 -eq kg-1 N mineralized, compared with vetch residues, which produced 233 kg CO2 -eq kg-1 N mineralized. To integrate agronomic and climate change mitigation perspectives, we suggest considering the C costs of the residue-N released when choosing a cover crop.

Feed intake, methane yield, and efficiency of utilization of energy and nitrogen by sheep fed tropical grasses.

Forage allowance impacts dry matter (DM) intake and the use of nutrients by ruminants. The efficient use of protein and energy from pasture is related to better livestock performance and lower environmental impacts. The aims of this study were to evaluate the effect of forage allowance levels on intake, digestibility, nitrogen (N) and energy balance, and methane (CH4) emissions by lambs fed fresh pearl millet [Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke]. An indoor trial was performed using lambs in a completely randomized design with four treatments [forage allowance at 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 kg DM/100 kg of live weight (LW), and ad libitum allowing 20% of refusals] and four replicates (lambs). Forage intake, digestibility, total urine and feces excretion, and CH4 emission were measured to calculate N and energy balances. An increase in forage allowance resulted in a linear increase in lamb forage intake, N retention, and metabolizable energy intake. Moreover, lamb CH4 emission (g/day) also increased with greater forage allowance, while CH4 yield decreased linearly as forage allowance increased. Our results indicate that maximizing forage intake improves N and energy use efficiency and mitigates CH4 yield and decreases CH4 conversion factor (Ym) by lambs fed pearl millet forage. Thus, management strategies that optimize intake of tropical forages by ruminants improve the use of nutrients ingested and mitigates negative impacts to the environment.

Potential of grazing management to improve beef cattle production and mitigate methane emissions in native grasslands of the Pampa biome.

We tested the hypothesis that improving sward structure through adjustments in forage allowance results in greater forage intake and live weight (LW) gains by beef cattle and lower CH4 emissions per unit LW gain and unit area in a native grassland ecosystem of the Pampa biome. The experiment was carried out during 2012 and 2013 in southern Brazil. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with two replicates. Treatments consisted of five contrasting forage allowances of a native grassland managed under continuous stocking: 4, 8, 8-12, 12, and 16 kg of dry matter (DM) 100 kg LW-1 day-1 (or % LW). The 8-12% LW treatment had a variable forage allowance of 8% LW in spring and 12% LW in summer, autumn, and winter. Forage allowance was controlled by changes in stocking rate (kg LW ha-1). Average daily gain (kg LW day-1) was high for forage allowances of 12 and 16% LW but decreased at 8%, reaching the lowest value at 4% LW treatment (p < 0.001). Live weight gain ha-1 year-1 was the greatest at forage allowance of 8-12% LW (p < 0.001). Forage DM intake peaked at a forage allowance of 12% LW (p = 0.005). Individual CH4 emissions remained constant around 150 g day-1 for the two highest forage allowances and decreased to 118 and 107 g day-1 under forage allowances of 8 and 4% LW, respectively (p = 0.002). Emissions per unit LW gain and unit area were driven by animal productivity changes and decreased with increasing forage allowance (p = 0.001 and p = 0.040, respectively). We propose that the combination of 8% LW forage allowance during spring and 12% LW during the rest of the year should be targeted to best balance animal production and environmental impact in the Pampa biome.

'Rotatinuous' stocking as a climate-smart grazing management strategy for sheep production.

We aimed to evaluate the effect of different grazing management strategies on carcass characteristics traits, meat quality and CH4 intensity and yield of lambs grazing Italian ryegrass pastures in Southern Brazil. A grazing trial was performed (2014 and 2015) in a randomized complete block design with two grazing management targets and four replicates. Treatments were traditional rotational stocking (RT), with pre- and post-grazing sward heights of 25 and 5 cm, respectively, and 'Rotatinuous' stocking (RN), with pre- and post-grazing sward heights of 18 and 11 cm, respectively. Castrated crossbred Texel and Polwarth lambs were used. Results indicated that diet cost per kg of dry matter (p = 0.001) and per hectare (p < 0.001) were lower for RN than for RT treatment. Final live weight (p = 0.022) and hot and cold carcass weight (p = 0.006) were greater for the RN treatment. All commercial cuts were greater for RN than for RT treatment. The RN treatment presented greater (p < 0.001) production of carcass, edible food and crude protein. Feed efficiency and feed cost conversion were better for RN than for RT treatment. CH4 intensity per kg of carcass, edible food and crude protein gain were 2.6, 2.7 and 2.1 times lower (p < 0.001) for RN. Moreover, CH4 yield was lower (p = 0.014) for RN than for RT treatment, with an average of 7.6 and 8.3% of the gross energy intake, respectively. We conclude that the 'Rotatinuous' stocking results in a greater carcass production, carcass quality and lower diet cost, and CH4 intensity and yield of grazing lambs. Adopting this grazing management strategy could enhance both lamb production and mitigation of CH4 intensity and yield in grazing ecosystems, which could be considered a good example of climate-smart livestock production.

The conversion of grassland to acacia forest as an effective option for net reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of forestation with leguminous Acacia mearnsii De Wild in native grasslands on the soil greenhouse (GHG) fluxes and their main driving factors. The experiment was conducted in the Brazilian Pampa over the period of one year in a six-year-old Acacia plantation, evaluating four treatments: Acacia (AM), Acacia with litter periodically removed (A-l), Acacia after harvest (AH) and native grassland (NG) (reference treatment). Air samples were obtained by the static chamber method, and gas concentrations were evaluated by gas chromatography. Soil and climate factors were monitored. The accumulated fluxes of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) were statistically similar between the soils in the AM and NG treatments, which tended to oxidize CH4 (-1445 and -1752 g C-CH4 ha(-1) yr(-1), respectively) and had low emission of N2O (242 and 316 g N-N2O ha(-1) yr(-1)), most likely influenced by the low water-filled pore space and the low content of mineral N in the soil. However, the soil in the AH treatment presented higher emissions of both gases, totaling 1889 g C-CH4 ha(-1) yr(-1) and 1250 g N-N2O ha(-1) yr(-1). Afforestation neither significantly affected the total organic C stocks nor their lability, keeping the C management index for the forested area similar to that in the NG treatment. The conversion from grassland to Acacia forest represents an effective option for mitigating the net reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, which is basically determined by C accumulation in biomass and wood products.

Gas chromatography and photoacoustic spectroscopy for the assessment of soil greenhouse gases emissions / Cromatografia gasosa e espectroscopia fotoacústica para avaliação das emissões de gases de efeito estufa do solo

Assessments of soil carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions are critical for determination of the agricultural practices' potential to mitigate global warming. This study evaluated the photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS) for the assessment of soil greenhouse gases (GHG) fluxes in comparison to the standard gas chromatography (GC) method. Two long-term experiments with different tillage and cropping systems over a Paleudult were evaluated using static chambers. PAS measurements of CO2 and N2O concentrations showed good relationship and linearity (R2=0.98 and 0.94, respectively) with GC results. However, CH4 measurements were significantly affected by air sample moisture which interfered on CH4 detection by PAS. Overestimation of CO2 and N2O concentrations in air samples determined by PAS (14.6 and 18.7%, respectively) were also related to sampling moisture. CO2 and N2O fluxes showed good agreement between methods (R2=0.96 and 0.95, respectively), though PAS overestimated fluxes by 18.6 and 13.6% in relation to GC results, respectively. PAS showed good sensitivity and was able to detect CO2 and N2O fluxes as low as 332mg CO2 m-2 h-1 and 21µg N2O m-2 h-1. PAS analyzer should be detailed calibrated to reduce humidity interference on CO2, CH4 and N2O concentrations measurements avoiding overestimation or erroneous determination of soil GHG fluxes.

As avaliações das emissões de dióxido de carbono (CO2), metano (CH4) e óxido nitroso (N2O) do solo são fundamentais para a determinação do potencial de práticas agrícolas em mitigar o aquecimento global. Este estudo avaliou a espectroscopia fotoacústica (EFA) para a determinação dos fluxos de gases de efeito estufa (GEE) do solo em comparação com o método padrão de cromatografia gasosa (CG). Dois experimentos de longa duração com diferentes sistemas de preparo do solo e rotação de culturas sobre um Argissolo foram avaliados usando câmaras estáticas. As medidas das concentrações de CO2 e N2O realizadas por EFA mostraram boa correlação e linearidade (R2=0,98 e 0,94; respectivamente) com os resultados de CG. Entretanto, as medidas de CH4 foram significativamente afetadas pela umidade da amostra de ar que interferiu na detecção do CH4 por EFA. A superestimativa das concentrações de CO2 e N2O nas amostras analisadas por EFA (14,6 e 18,7%; respectivamente) também foram relacionadas com o conteúdo de umidade da amostra. Os fluxos de CO2 e N2O mostraram boa correlação entre os métodos (R2=0,96 e 0,95; respectivamente), apesar da superestimativa dos fluxos determinados por EFA ter sido de 18,6 e 13,6% em relação aos resultados obtidos por CG, respectivamente. A EFA mostrou boa sensibilidade e foi capaz de detectar fluxos de CO2 e N2O tão baixos quanto 332mg CO2 m-2 h-1 and 21µg N2O m-2 h-1. A calibração detalhada do analisador fotoacústico para reduzir a interferência da umidade das amostras nas medidas das concentrações de CO2, CH4 e N2O deve ser realizada a fim de evitar superestimativa ou erro na determinação dos fluxos de GEE do solo.

In situ methane and nitrous oxide fluxes in soil from a transect in Hennequin Point, King George Island, Antarctic.

The study aimed at to determine the magnitude of the methane (CH(4)) and nitrous oxide (N(2)O) flux rates in soils at Hennequin Point, King George Island, Antarctic, under different slope positions, vegetal covers and presence of skuas, as well as to evaluate the main soil and climate factors that are involved with the flux of such gases. In situ gas sampling (closed chamber method) was performed in four sites along a transect involving a skua nesting field in a moraine with 5% and 100% of surface covered by vegetal, and two poor-drained soils in the toeslope (a bare alluvium soil and a poor-drained moss field with 100% soil cover). Flux rates ranged from -0.86±0.45 to 2.75±1.52 µg N(2)O-N m(-2) h(-1) and -12.26±3.05 to 1.42±1.31 µg CH(4)-C m(-2) h(-1). The soil totally covered by vegetal in the skua field had the largest CH(4) influx rates. However, this benefic effect was counterbalanced by the greatest N(2)O efflux rates from this soil, resulting in the largest contribution to the global warming potential among the soils evaluated. Flux rates were closely related to soil temperature, but no significant relation was observed with mineral N contents and water-filled pore space. In turn, accumulated CH(4) and N(2)O emissions were closely related to the total N and total organic C stocks in the soil. Net CH(4) influx predominated even in the poor-drained soils, suggesting that the coarse soil texture avoided critical anaerobic conditions. No significant changes in flux rates were observed for sampling time along the day.

Variação diária da emissão de metano em solo cultivado com arroz irrigado no Sul do Brasil / Diurnal variation of methane emission from a paddy field under rice cultivation in the Southern Brazil

O metano (CH4 ) apresenta um potencial de aquecimento 23 a 32 vezes maior do que o dióxido de C e a sua emissão diária em lavouras de arroz varia com a temperatura do solo e da água, e o metabolismo das plantas. O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar o horário apropriado à coleta de amostras de ar para quantificar a emissão média diária de CH4, informação fundamental para estudos visando a derivação de índices regionais de emissão desse gás. Três campanhas de monitoramento da emissão de CH4, com coletas em intervalos de 3h, foram realizadas nos estágios de emissão da panícula (campanha 1) e de maturação de grãos (campanhas 2 e 3) do arroz sob diferentes sistemas de cultivo (convencional e plantio direto) na safra 2002/2003, na Estação Experimental do Instituto Rio Grandense do Arroz, em Cachoeirinha, RS. A coleta das amostras de ar foi realizada com seringas de poliestireno em câmaras de alumínio de 1m², sendo que as análises de metano foram realizadas por cromatografia gasosa. A emissão diária de CH4 apresentou padrão similar nas três campanhas de amostragem independente do sistema de cultivo. A faixa de emissão mínima (4-19mg CH4m-2 h-1) ocorreu entre as 24 horas e o início da manhã seguinte (9 horas), e a faixa de emissão máxima (8-33mg CH4 m-2 h-1) do início à metade da tarde (12-15 horas). A emissão de CH4 foi relacionada à temperatura da água de inundação (campanhas 1 e 3) e do solo (campanha 2). Com base nas curvas de emissão diária e considerando aspectos operacionais como a viabilidade de análise cromatográfica das amostras no período de 24h após a coleta, o intervalo entre 9 e 12 horas é recomendado para a avaliação das emissões de CH4 em lavouras de arroz irrigado quando objetiva-se a obtenção de valores equivalentes à emissão média diária desse gás. Acredita-se que a alta relação entre a temperatura e a emissão de metano valida esse procedimento para as sub-regiões produtoras de arroz no Sul do Brasil (região litorânea e Sul...

Methane (CH4) has a global warming potential 23 to 32 times higher than carbon dioxide and its emission rate in rice fields should vary daily with water and soil temperature, and plant metabolism. This study aimed to identify the appropriate time interval for air sampling in order to quantify the mean daily CH4 emission rate, key information to future studies aiming the derivation of regional indexes of CH4 emission. Three campaigns were performed to evaluate diurnal variation in CH4 emissions (3h interval) from continuously flooded rice (Oryza sativa L. cv. 'IRGA-422 CL') fields at different crop stages (panicle differentiation and ripening) and management systems (conventional tillage-CT and no-tillage-NT) during 2002/2003 crop season in long-term experiment at the Instituto Rio Grandense do Arroz (IRGA), in Cachoeirinha, RS, Brazil. Static chamber method was used and the air samples collected with polystyrene syringes were analyzed by gas chromatography. Methane emission showed a same diurnal pattern in the three campaigns in the both tillage systems. The maximum range of emission (8-33mg CH4m-2 h-1) was observed in the early afternoon (12.00 to 15.00p.m.) followed by a decline to a minimum around midnight to next morning (4-19mg CH4 m-2 h-1), in which fluxes were related to flood water temperature (campaign 1 and 3) or soil temperature (campaign 2). Taking into account the daily emission curves, plus operational aspects like chromatographic analysis of samples into the 24h period after air sampling, the time interval from 9.00 to 12.00a.m. is recommended to studies aiming to evaluate mean daily CH4 emission in rice fields. The close relationship between temperature and methane emission allows us infer about the suitability of the gas sampling procedure for the different rice sub-regions of South of Brazil (littoral region and south of RS, and south of SC) that present the same daily behavior of solar radiation and air temperature...

Variáveis relacionadas à estabilidade de complexos organo-minerais em solos tropicais e subtropicais brasileiros / Selected soil-variables related to the stability of organo-minerals complexes in tropical and subtropical brazilian soils

A estabilidade de complexos organo-minerais é uma característica importante quanto à química e física de solos tropicais e subtropicais. O objetivo deste estudo foi identificar variáveis relacionadas à estabilidade de complexos organo-minerais, avaliada pela energia de ultra-som necessária para a dispersão total do solo em partículas primárias, em seis solos das regiões Sul e Centro-Oeste do Brasil com textura e mineralogia distintas. A energia de ultra-som necessária para dispersão total dos solos variou de 239 a 2.389J mL-1, sendo diretamente relacionada aos teores de carbono orgânico (R²=0,799, P<0,05). A mineralogia da fração argila teve um papel determinante na estabilidade dos complexos organo-minerais, a qual foi relacionada aos teores de óxidos de ferro de baixa cristalinidade (R²=0,586, P<0,10), mas não teve relação com os teores totais de óxido de ferro pedogênicos. A análise qualitativa da fração argila, realizada por difratometria de raios-X, demonstrou que a estabilidade dos complexos organo-minerais variou positivamente em função das proporções de gibbsita e de goethita na fração argila, o que reforça o papel desses minerais na proteção física e estabilidade coloidal da matéria orgânica em solos tropicais e subtropicais.

The stability of organo-mineral complexes is an important characteristic related to the soil chemistry and physics of tropical and subtropical soils. This study was aimed at identifing the variables related to the stability of organo-mineral complexes, evaluated by ultrasonic energy necessary to complete soil dispersion, of six soils from South and West-Center regions of Brazil with distint texture and mineralogy. The ultrasonic energy to complete soil dispersion varied from 239 a 2389J mL-1, and was positively related to the soil organic carbon concentrations (R²=0.799, P<0.05). The clay mineralogy had an important role to the stability of organo-mineral complexes, which were related to the content of low cristalinity iron oxides (R²=0.586, P<0.10), but did not had relationship with the total pedogenic iron oxides. The qualitative analysis of the clay mineralogy, by X-ray diffraction, evidenced that gibbsite and goethite are the main clay minerals related to the stability of organo-mineral complexes, reinforcing the importance of these minerals on the physical protection and coloidal stability of the soil organic matter in the tropical and subtropical soils.

Potential of carbon accumulation in no-till soils with intensive use and cover crops in southern Brazil.

The area under no-till (NT) in Brazil reached 22 million ha in 2004-2005, of which approximately 45% was located in the southern states. From the 1970s to the mid-1980s, this region was a source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere due to decrease of soil carbon (C) stocks and high consumption of fuel by intensive tillage. Since then, NT has partially restored the soil C lost and reduced the consumption of fossil fuels. To assess the potential of C accumulation in NT soils, four long-term experiments (7-19 yr) in subtropical soils (Paleudult, Paleudalf, and Hapludox) varying in soil texture (87-760 g kg(-1) of clay) in agroecologic southern Brazil zones (central region, northwest basaltic plateau in Rio Grande Sul, and west basaltic plateau in Santa Catarina) and with different cropping systems (soybean and maize) were investigated. The lability of soil organic matter (SOM) was calculated as the ratio of total organic carbon (TOC) to particulate organic carbon (POC), and the role of physical protection on stability of SOM was evaluated. In general, TOC and POC stocks in native grass correlated closely with clay content. Conversely, there was no clear effect of soil texture on C accumulation rates in NT soils, which ranged from 0.12 to 0.59 Mg ha(-1) yr(-1). The C accumulation was higher in NT than in conventional-till (CT) soils. The legume cover crops pigeon pea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp] and velvet beans (Stizolobium cinereum Piper & Tracy) in NT maize cropping systems had the highest C accumulation rates (0.38-0.59 Mg ha(-1) yr(-1)). The intensive cropping systems also were effective in increasing the C accumulation rates in NT soils (0.25-0.34 Mg ha(-1) yr(-1)) when compared to the double-crop system used by farmers. These results stress the role of N fixation in improving the tropical and subtropical cropping systems. The physical protection of SOM within soil aggregates was an important mechanism of C accumulation in the sandy clay loam Paleudult under NT. The cropping system and NT effects on C stocks were attributed to an increase in the lability of SOM, as evidenced by the higher POC to TOC ratio, which is very important to C and energy flux through the soil.

Métodos para avaliação das emissões de gases do efeito estufa no sistema solo-atmosfera / Methods for the assessment of greenhouse gases emissions in the soil-atmosphere system

A escolha do método para avaliar as emissões de gases do efeito estufa (GEE) é uma etapa importante para o conhecimento e/ou desenvolvimento de práticas agrícolas com potencial de mitigação do aquecimento global. A presente revisão tem por objetivo apresentar vantagens e limitações de métodos utilizados para quantificação dos fluxos de dióxido de carbono (CO2), metano (CH4) e óxido nitroso (N2O) no sistema solo-atmosfera. O balanço dos estoques de C orgânico no solo em sistemas conservacionistas de manejo permite avaliar o influxo líquido anual de C-CO2 atmosférico no solo em comparação a sistemas de manejo convencional. Maior sensibilidade na determinação direta das emissões de CO2 in situ pode ser obtida pelo uso de câmaras sobre o solo. Nesse caso, podem ser determinadas taxas diárias com o método da captura do CO2 em solução alcalina e quantificação por titulação, e taxas horárias com o uso de analisadores automáticos de infravermelho ou cromatógrafos a gás. Pelo uso de cromatografia, é possível também a avaliação das emissões de N2O e CH4 os quais apresentam, respectivamente, potencial de aquecimento global 296 e 23 vezes superior ao do CO2. A análise dos três GEE é necessária quando se objetiva avaliar o potencial de um dado sistema de manejo na mitigação do aquecimento global, o qual pode ser expresso em C equivalente.

Atributos físicos do solo relacionados ao armazenamento de água em um argissolo vermelho sob diferentes sistemas de preparo / Soil physics properties related to water storage and tillage systems in a loamy acrisol

Os sistemas de preparo afetam a estrutura do solo e podem influenciar o armazenamento de água disponível para as plantas. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o efeito de longo prazo (17 anos) dos sistemas de preparo convencional (PC), preparo reduzido (PR) e semeadura direta (SD) sobre os atributos físicos relacionados ao armazenamento e disponibilidade de água de um Argissolo Vermelho com textura média, em Eldorado do Sul, RS. Amostras de solo (0-2,5, 2,5-7,5, 7,5-12,5, 12,5-17,5cm) foram coletadas numa seqüência ervilhaca/milho. Adicionalmente, amostrou-se uma área sob campo nativo (CN), adjacente à área experimental, como referência à condição natural do solo. O solo em SD apresentou maiores teores de carbono orgânico (CO) na camada superficial e maiores valores de resistência ao penetrômetro em profundidade, em relação ao solo em preparo convencional. Os sistemas de preparo não se diferenciaram quanto ao seu efeito na macro e microporosidade do solo, contudo o revolvimento no PC aumentou a condutividade hidráulica saturada em profundidade. Não se verificou nenhuma restrição física ao desenvolvimento radicular sob os diferentes sistemas de preparo, o que foi comprovado pelos valores de densidade (1,35 a 1,65 Mg m-3), macroporosidade (0,09 a 0,20 m³ m-3) e resistência ao penetrômetro (0,25 a 0,75 MPa). Do ponto de vista hídrico, as curvas de retenção e o volume de água disponível (AD = 10 kPa (capacidade de campo) - 1.500 kPa (ponto de murcha permanente)), não foram influenciados pelos sistemas de preparo, sendo o baixo volume de água disponível (0,05 a 0,09 m³ m-3) relacionado à textura desse solo. Nesse caso, o aumento da taxa de infiltração e a diminuição da evaporação da água decorrente da manutenção dos resíduos vegetais sobre o solo nos sistemas de preparo reduzido e semeadura direta, podem contribuir para uma maior disponibilidade hídrica na fase inicial do estabelecimento das culturas nesses sistemas conservacionistas de manejo em comparação ao preparo convencional.

Testes de nitrato no solo como indicadores complementares no manejo da adubação nitrogenada em milho / Soil nitrate tests as complementary indices for management of corn nitrogen application

A recomendação de nitrogênio (N) para a cultura do milho teve um avanço expressivo recentemente na região Sul do Brasil, quando passou a considerar a cultura anterior em adição ao teor de matéria orgânica do solo e a expectativa do rendimento de grãos. A busca de otimização do sistema de recomendação é constante e, nesse sentido, há grande potencial da inclusão de parâmetros de solo e de planta como indicadores complementares da disponibilidade de N no solo, principalmente em sistemas altamente produtivos e com aplicação de altas doses de N. Dentre os parâmetros de solo destacam-se os testes de nitrato, os quais indicam a quantidade de N disponível e são denominados testes de intensidade. Em função da época de realização, os testes de nitrato podem ser divididos basicamente em (i) teste de pré-semeadura - TPS ("preplant soil nitrate test" - PPNT), (ii) teste de pré-aplicação de N em cobertura - TPNC ("pre-sidedress soil nitrate test" - PSNT), e (iii) teste de pós-colheita - TPC ("post-harvest soil nitrate test" - PHNT). Dentre estes testes, destaca-se o TPNC, o qual tem sido mais estudado e difundido, principalmente nos EUA, pois permite avaliar a variação da disponibilidade de N do solo durante o ciclo da cultura, possibilitando o manejo da adubação nitrogenada em situações específicas. Esta revisão visa abordar o potencial dos testes de nitrato na avaliação da disponibilidade de N no decorrer do ciclo do milho e sua utilização na predição da necessidade de N a ser suplementado. A hipótese é de que a utilização dos testes de nitrato resultem em maior flexibilidade no manejo da adubação nitrogenada em milho.

Aumento de matéria orgânica num latossolo bruno em plantio direto / No-tillage increases soil organic matter in a South Brazilian oxisol

O aumento do estoque de matéria orgânica do solo em sistemas conservacionistas de manejo é dependente do tipo de solo e das condições climáticas, e tem reflexos na qualidade física do solo. Neste estudo, avaliou-se um experimento de longa duração (21 anos) quanto ao efeito do sistema plantio direto (PD) sobre os estoques de carbono orgânico total (COT) e particulado (COP, >53mm), bem como a sua relação com a estabilidade de agregados de um Latossolo Bruno, em Guarapuava, PR. O solo em PD apresentou taxa de incremento de 0,15Mg ha-1 ano-1 de COT e 0,06Mg ha-1 ano-1 de COP na camada de 0-20cm, as quais foram calculadas em comparação aos estoques de carbono orgânico do solo em preparo convencional. As baixas taxas de incremento nos estoques de carbono orgânico possivelmente estejam relacionadas à alta estabilidade física da matéria orgânica neste solo argiloso e com mineralogia predominantemente gibsítica. O diâmetro médio geométrico (DMG) dos agregados de solo variou de 1,6 a 3,7mm e foi positiva e linearmente relacionado com os teores de COT e COP, o que reforça a importância da matéria orgânica na qualidade física de Latossolos subtropicais.

Calagem e as propriedades eletroquímicas e físicas de um latossolo em plantio direto / Liming effect on electrochemical and physical properties of a no-tilled oxisol

Neste estudo, avaliou-se (i) o efeito da calagem nas propriedades eletroquímicas e físicas de um Latossolo Bruno há 21 anos em plantio direto (PD), bem como (ii) o efeito do revolvimento do solo para a incorporaçäo de calcário sobre as suas propriedades físicas. A calagem aumentou o potencial elétrico superficial do solo, independente do modo de aplicaçäo de calcário, cujos valores estimados variaram de (-) 90 mV a (-) 118mV. Entretanto, a argila dispersa em água näo aumentou, o que pode ter sido devido à sua relaçäo inversa com o carbono orgânico total (COT) (r²=0,80) e Ca+Mg (r²=0,56), cujos maiores teores foram verificados na camada superficial do solo. O diâmetro médio geométrico (DMG) dos agregados näo foi afetado pela calagem, e teve uma relaçäo positiva com os teores de COT (r²=0,89) das diferentes camadas de solo. Após 5 anos, näo se verificou efeito negativo do revolvimento do solo para a incorporaçäo de calcário sobre o DMG dos agregados e na porosidade deste solo argiloso (690g kg-1 argila) e de mineralogia predominantemente gibsítica. Além das condiçöes favoráveis à atividade microbiana, maiores teores de COT e de Ca e Mg na camada superficial de solos em PD contribuem para a mitigaçäo do efeito dispersivo da calagem.