cBAF complex components and MYC cooperate early in CD8+ T cell fate.

The identification of mechanisms to promote memory T (Tmem) cells has important implications for vaccination and anti-cancer immunotherapy1-4. Using a CRISPR-based screen for negative regulators of Tmem cell generation in vivo5, here we identify multiple components of the mammalian canonical BRG1/BRM-associated factor (cBAF)6,7. Several components of the cBAF complex are essential for the differentiation of activated CD8+ T cells into T effector (Teff) cells, and their loss promotes Tmem cell formation in vivo. During the first division of activated CD8+ T cells, cBAF and MYC8 frequently co-assort asymmetrically to the two daughter cells. Daughter cells with high MYC and high cBAF display a cell fate trajectory towards Teff cells, whereas those with low MYC and low cBAF preferentially differentiate towards Tmem cells. The cBAF complex and MYC physically interact to establish the chromatin landscape in activated CD8+ T cells. Treatment of naive CD8+ T cells with a putative cBAF inhibitor during the first 48 h of activation, before the generation of chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cells, markedly improves efficacy in a mouse solid tumour model. Our results establish cBAF as a negative determinant of Tmem cell fate and suggest that manipulation of cBAF early in T cell differentiation can improve cancer immunotherapy.

Necroptosis in development, inflammation and disease.

In the early 2000s, receptor-interacting serine/threonine protein kinase 1 (RIPK1), a molecule already recognized as an important regulator of cell survival, inflammation and disease, was attributed an additional function: the regulation of a novel cell death pathway that came to be known as necroptosis. Subsequently, the related kinase RIPK3 and its substrate mixed-lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL) were also implicated in the necroptotic pathway, and links between this pathway and apoptosis were established. In this Timeline article, we outline the discoveries that have helped to identify the roles of RIPK1, RIPK3, MLKL and other regulators of necroptosis, and how they interact to determine cell fate.

Inhibition of Hsp90 via 17-DMAG induces apoptosis in a p53-dependent manner to prevent medulloblastoma.

Elevated expression of HSP90 is observed in many tumor types and is associated with a limited clinical response. Targeting HSP90 using inhibitors such as 17-DMAG (17-desmethoxy-17-N,N-dimethylaminoethylaminogeldanamycin) has shown limited therapeutic success. HSP90 regulates the function of several proteins implicated in tumorigenesis although the precise mechanism through which 17-DMAG regulates tumor cell survival remains unclear. We observed a requirement for p53 in mediating 17-DMAG-induced cell death. The sensitivity of primary mouse embryonic fibroblasts and tumor cells to 17-DMAG-induced apoptosis depended on the p53 status. Wild-type MEFs underwent 17-DMAG-induced caspase-dependent cell death, whilst those lacking p53 failed to do so. Interestingly p53-dependent cell death occurred independently of Atm or Arf. Primary tumor cells derived from two models of murine medulloblastoma (Ptch1(+/-);Ink4c(-/-) and p53(FL/FL);Nestin-Cre(+); Ink4c(-/-)) that retain and lack p53 function, respectively, displayed a dependence on functional p53 to engage 17-DMAG-induced apoptosis. Strikingly, 17-DMAG treatment in an allograft model of Ptch1(+/-);Ink4c(-/-) but not p53(FL/FL);Nestin-Cre(+); Ink4c(-/-) tumor cells prevented tumor growth in vivo. Our data suggest that p53 status is a likely predictor of the sensitivity of tumors to 17-DMAG.

Characterization of cytoplasmic caspase-2 activation by induced proximity.

Caspase-2 is an initiator caspase activated in response to heat shock and other stressors that induce apoptosis. Activation of caspase-2 requires induced proximity resulting after recruitment to caspase-2 activation complexes such as the PIDDosome. We have adapted bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) to measure caspase-2 induced proximity in real time in single cells. Nonfluorescent fragments of the fluorescent protein Venus that can associate to reform the fluorescent complex were fused to caspase-2, allowing visualization and kinetic measurements of caspase-2 induced proximity after heat shock and other stresses. This revealed that the caspase-2 activation platform occurred in the cytosol and not in the nucleus in response to heat shock, DNA damage, cytoskeletal disruption, and other treatments. Activation, as measured by this approach, in response to heat shock was RAIDD dependent and upstream of mitochondrial outer-membrane permeabilization. Furthermore, we identify Hsp90alpha as a key negative regulator of heat shock-induced caspase-2 activation.

GAPDH and autophagy preserve survival after apoptotic cytochrome c release in the absence of caspase activation.

In cells undergoing apoptosis, mitochondrial outer-membrane permeabilization (MOMP) is followed by caspase activation promoted by released cytochrome c. Although caspases mediate the apoptotic phenotype, caspase inhibition is generally not sufficient for survival following MOMP; instead cells undergo a "caspase-independent cell death" (CICD). Thus, MOMP may represent a point of commitment to cell death. Here, we identify glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) as a critical regulator of CICD. GAPDH-expressing cells preserved their clonogenic potential following MOMP, provided that caspase activation was blocked. GAPDH-mediated protection of cells from CICD involved an elevation in glycolysis and a nuclear function that correlated with and was replaced by an increase in Atg12 expression. Consistent with this, protection from CICD reflected an increase in and a dependence upon autophagy, associated with a transient decrease in mitochondrial mass. Therefore, GAPDH mediates an elevation in glycolysis and enhanced autophagy that cooperate to protect cells from CICD.

In situ trapping of activated initiator caspases reveals a role for caspase-2 in heat shock-induced apoptosis.

Activation of 'initiator' (or 'apical') caspases-2, -8 or -9 (refs 1-3) is crucial for induction of apoptosis. These caspases function to activate executioner caspapses that, in turn, orchestrate apoptotic cell death. Here, we show that a cell-permeable, biotinylated pan-caspase inhibitor (bVAD-fmk) both inhibited and 'trapped' the apical caspase activated when apoptosis was triggered. As expected, only caspase-8 was trapped in response to ligation of death receptors, whereas only caspase-9 was trapped in response to a variety of other apoptosis-inducing agents. Caspase-2 was exclusively activated in heat shock-induced apoptosis. This activation of caspase-2 was also observed in cells protected from heat-shock-induced apoptosis by Bcl-2 or Bcl-xL. Reduced sensitivity to heat-shock-induced death was observed in caspase-2(-/-) cells. Furthermore, cells lacking the adapter molecule RAIDD failed to activate caspase-2 after heat shock treatment and showed resistance to apoptosis in this setting. This approach unambiguously identifies the apical caspase activated in response to apoptotic stimuli, and establishes caspase-2 as a proximal mediator of heat shock-induced apoptosis.

The multidomain proapoptotic molecules Bax and Bak are directly activated by heat.

During apoptosis, engagement of the mitochondrial pathway involves a decisive event characterized by the release of mitochondrial intermembrane space proteins, such as cytochrome c. This permeabilization of the mitochondrial outer membrane depends on activation and oligomerization of multidomain Bcl-2-family proteins Bax or Bak. Although specific members of the Bcl-2 family can activate these proapoptotic proteins, we found that heat directly activated Bax or Bak to induce cytochrome c release. A preparation of mitochondria heated at 43 degrees C released cytochrome c in association with Bak oligomerization, and Bcl-xL prevented these events. Similarly, heat induced the oligomerization of recombinant Bax, conferring an ability to permeabilize mitochondria. Compared with wild-type cells, bax(-/-)bak(-/-) mouse embryonic fibroblasts and mitochondria isolated from these cells were resistant to heat-induced cytochrome c release. Cytosol from untreated cells inhibited heat-activated Bax or Bak; however, depletion of cytosolic Bcl-xL ablated this protection. Although mitochondria heated in the presence of cytosol did not release cytochrome c, they displayed a dramatic increase in sensitivity to permeabilization by the BH3-only protein Bid. Additionally, a peptide corresponding to the BH3 domain of Puma counteracted the inhibitory effect of cytosol and permitted heat-activated Bak to permeabilize the mitochondria. Therefore, heat represents a condition under which multidomain proapoptotic proteins are activated, and this activation is regulated by both antiapoptotic and BH3-only members of the Bcl-2 family. Our results support an emerging paradigm, wherein the activation of Bax or Bak and the blockade of antiapoptotic Bcl-2 proteins are pivotal steps in the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis.

Death versus survival: functional interaction between the apoptotic and stress-inducible heat shock protein pathways.

Induction of heat shock proteins (Hsps) following cellular damage can prevent apoptosis induced by both the intrinsic and the extrinsic pathways. The intrinsic pathway is characterized by mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP), cytochrome c release, apoptosome assembly, and caspase activation. Hsps promote cell survival by preventing MOMP or apoptosome formation as well as via regulation of Akt and JNK activities. Engagement of the TNF death receptors induces the extrinsic pathway that is characterized by Fas-associated death domain-dependent (FADD-dependent) caspase-8 activation or induction of NF-kappaB to promote cellular survival. Hsps can directly suppress proapoptotic signaling events or stabilizing elements of the NF-kappaB pathway to promote cellular survival.

"The stress of dying": the role of heat shock proteins in the regulation of apoptosis.

Heat shock proteins (Hsps) are a family of highly homologous chaperone proteins that are induced in response to environmental, physical and chemical stresses and that limit the consequences of damage and facilitate cellular recovery. The underlying ability of Hsps to maintain cell survival correlates with an inhibition of caspase activation and apoptosis that can, but does not always, depend upon their chaperoning activities. Several mechanisms proposed to account for these observations impact on both the "intrinsic", mitochondria-dependent and the "extrinsic", death-receptor-mediated pathways to apoptosis. Hsps can inhibit the activity of pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins to prevent permeabilization of the outer mitochondrial membrane and release of apoptogenic factors. The disruption of apoptosome formation represents another mechanism by which Hsps can prevent caspase activation and induction of apoptosis. Several signaling cascades involved in the regulation of key elements within the apoptotic cascade are also subject to modulation by Hsps, including those involving JNK, NF-kappaB and AKT. The coordinated activities of the Hsps thus modulate multiple events within apoptotic pathways to help sustain cell survival following damaging stimuli.