Exploring pig farmers' decision-making concerning biosecurity measures against African Swine Fever.

African Swine Fever (ASF) is a growing threat to the German pig production sector. Rigorous biosecurity measures can prevent the introduction of ASF in domestic pig farms. Increased efforts have been made to inform pig farmers and other stakeholders in the industry regarding disease prevention measures for ASF. As part of quality management in animal disease prevention, we investigated the extent to which these efforts were successful and how knowledge transfer needs to be improved. Applying a qualitative study design with open, structured face-to-face interviews, this study aimed at assessing pig farmers' decision-making processes concerning the implementation of biosecurity measures against ASF and deducing the best-fitted pathways to improve the dissemination of information among pig farmers. We developed a modified theoretical model using the Health Belief Model, Protection Motivation Theory, and Theory of Planned Behaviour as the basis for our interview questionnaire and analysis. We showed that despite the steady spread of ASF into and within Germany, most pig farmers did not perceive an increased threat to their farms. However, many pig farmers communicated their uncertainty on how to correctly implement biosecurity measures according to the law. This study identified the importance of veterinary officials and farm veterinarians as referents on the topic of biosecurity and the need for clear standards concerning biosecurity regulations. Further, it suggests the need for closer cooperation between pig farmers and these referents, and a focus on joint decision-making, taking into account the individual circumstances of the farmers.

[Performance parameters and pathogen detection in pig groups differently vaccinated with respect to Porcine Circovirus Type 2 and Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae]. / Leistungsparameter und Erregernachweise in unterschiedlich geimpften Tiergruppen in Bezug auf das Porzine Circovirus Typ 2 und Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae.

OBJECTIVE: Respiratory diseases, mostly multifactorial, cause problems in pig farms worldwide. Next to infectious agents, such as Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) and Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae (M. hyopneumoniae) management, housing, and environmental factors are decisive for the development of disease. In a conventional, closed swine farm in Lower Saxony, Germany, which did not vaccinate against PCV2, the effect of an implementation of PCV2 vaccination (Suvaxyn® Circo + MH RTU) onto animal health was evaluated. In addition, the effect of this combination vaccine was assessed in comparison to simultaneous administration of mono-vaccines against PCV2 and M. hyopneumoniae. MATERIAL AND METHOD: In a two-phase trial, 524 (phase 1) or 521 (phase 2) clinically healthy piglets were included at the first week of life. In the first phase, performance parameters were compared in animals vaccinated against M. hyopneumoniae only (group A) or vaccinated against PCV2 and M. hyopneumoniae (group B). In phase 2, vaccination against PCV2 and M. hyopneumoniae with different vaccines were compared (groups C and D). Performance parameters included lifetime animal losses, daily weight gains during suckling, weaning and fattening, and randomly sampled pathogen loads in serum (PCV2) or tracheobronchial secretions (M. hyopneumoniae). In addition, an assessment of the lungs was performed after slaughter. RESULTS: In the first phase, it was shown that the group vaccinated against PCV2 (Group B: Suvaxyn® Circo + MH RTU) had higher daily growth rates during the fattening period (+ 37 g, p = 0.012) as well as during the complete period (+ 16 g, p = 0.013) in comparison to the group without PCV2 vaccination (Group A). In group A a significantly higher proportion of animals showed a PCV2 viremia. In the second phase, it was shown that group D was not inferior to the established vaccination regiment of group C. In fattening pigs in week 22 of life, detection rates for M. hyopneumoniae in tracheobronchial secretions were in the range of 27-80 % irrespective of the vaccination group. CONCLUSION: Vaccination against PCV2 leads to improved animal health and higher daily weight gains. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The combined vaccine studied here provides farmers and veterinarians with an additional option for the improvement of animal health in pig production.

Application of the voluntary human approach test on commercial pig fattening farms: a meaningful tool?

BACKGROUND: A Voluntary Human Approach Test (VHAT) was performed in pig pens, and relationships between environmental conditions and welfare indicators were investigated. Five variables were measured in 1668 pens in 214 fattening pig herds in Germany: time until the first contact (touching) between a pig and the person in the pen (TUFC), time until the observer was surrounded by pigs within a radius of approximately two meters, percentage of pigs relative to group size [%] surrounding the observer after 1 min (PPSO), percentage of pigs relative to group size [%] that completely avoided contact with the observer during the entire test period, and how the pigs contacted the observer (Score 0 [no touching] - 3 [biting]). Furthermore, variables indicative of the pigs' environment (e.g., feeding system, ventilation system), management (e.g., number of usable drinkers, number of usable manipulatable materials), and welfare (e.g., tail lesions, ear lesions) were documented. RESULTS: Pigs engaging in more forceful means of contact (nibbling, biting) approached the observer faster than those exhibiting more gentle types of contact (touching). A lower TUFC was associated with more manipulatable materials present, a higher number of drinkers, and with the control position of the caretaker located inside the pen. Pigs kept in larger groups showed a lower TUFC than those in smaller groups (P = 0.0191). However, PPSO was lower in pigs kept in smaller groups (1-12 pigs per pen) with more manipulatable materials available. In groups with low PPSOs, more tail lesions were observed (P = 0.0296). No relationship between contact type and tail or ear injuries was detected. In younger pigs, PPSO was higher (49.9 ± 23.2%) than for animals in the second half of the fattening period (45.1 ± 19.9%). CONCLUSIONS: In this on-farm study, the relationships between VHAT behavior and environmental factors revealed that external factors (e.g., management practices, housing conditions) impact animals' responses to this behavioral test. Therefore, using the VHAT as an animal welfare indicator is valid only if these variables are studied as well.

Surveillance of European Domestic Pig Populations Identifies an Emerging Reservoir of Potentially Zoonotic Swine Influenza A Viruses.

Swine influenza A viruses (swIAVs) can play a crucial role in the generation of new human pandemic viruses. In this study, in-depth passive surveillance comprising nearly 2,500 European swine holdings and more than 18,000 individual samples identified a year-round presence of up to four major swIAV lineages on more than 50% of farms surveilled. Phylogenetic analyses show that intensive reassortment with human pandemic A(H1N1)/2009 (H1pdm) virus produced an expanding and novel repertoire of at least 31 distinct swIAV genotypes and 12 distinct hemagglutinin/neuraminidase combinations with largely unknown consequences for virulence and host tropism. Several viral isolates were resistant to the human antiviral MxA protein, a prerequisite for zoonotic transmission and stable introduction into human populations. A pronounced antigenic variation was noted in swIAV, and several H1pdm lineages antigenically distinct from current seasonal human H1pdm co-circulate in swine. Thus, European swine populations represent reservoirs for emerging IAV strains with zoonotic and, possibly, pre-pandemic potential.

Effectiveness of alternative measures to reduce antimicrobial usage in pig production in four European countries.

BACKGROUND: The reduction of antimicrobial usage (AMU) is in the focus in modern pig production. The objective of this study was to assess the effectiveness of alternatives to reduce AMU at herd level. In a prospective study, 68 farrow-to-finish pig herds located in Belgium, France, Germany and Sweden were recruited on a voluntary basis to implement tailor-made intervention plans to reduce their AMU. Alternative measures included improvement of biosecurity (n = 29 herds), vaccination (n = 30), changes of feeding schemes or drinking water quality (n = 45), improved pig health and welfare care (n = 21) as well as changes in stable climate and zootechnical measures (n = 14). Herds were followed for 1 year after implementation of measures. Annual antimicrobial expenditures or treatment records, as well as disease incidence scores were collected and compared to those of the year before intervention. AMU was measured as the treatment incidence and calculated by age category, antimicrobial class and administration route. RESULTS: Compliance with the intervention plans was high (median 93%). AMU was significantly reduced following the implementation of alternative measures: in the median herd of the four countries, pigs were treated before intervention 25% of their expected lifespan (200 days from birth to slaughter) and after intervention 16%. AMU of suckling and weaned pigs were significantly reduced by 37 and 54%, respectively. The usage of polymyxins and tetracyclines was significantly reduced by 69 and 49%, respectively. AMU via feed and water, as well as parenteral AMU were significantly reduced by 46 and 36%, respectively. Herds with a higher AMU level before intervention achieved a bigger reduction. The majority of disease incidence were similar before and after intervention, with a few exceptions of disorders related to the gastro-intestinal tract in suckling pigs (decreased) and in breeding pigs (increased). CONCLUSION: Following tailor-made implementation of alternative measures, a substantial reduction of AMU in pig production was achievable without jeopardizing animal health. The AMU reduction in the youngest age categories (suckling and weaned pigs) and the reduction of group treatments via feed and water was in line with the recent European Guidelines on the prudent use of antimicrobials in veterinary medicine.

Alternatives to the use of antimicrobial agents in pig production: A multi-country expert-ranking of perceived effectiveness, feasibility and return on investment.

Nineteen alternatives to antimicrobial agents were ranked on perceived effectiveness, feasibility and return on investment (ROI) from 0 (not effective, not feasible, no ROI) to 10 (fully effective, completely feasible, maximum ROI) by 111 pig health experts from Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Sweden and Switzerland. The top 5 measures in terms of perceived effectiveness were (1) improved internal biosecurity, (2) improved external biosecurity, (3) improved climate/environmental conditions, (4) high health/Specific Pathogen Free/disease eradication and (5) increased vaccination. The top 5 measures in terms of perceived feasibility were (1) increased vaccination, (2) increased use of anti-inflammatory products, (3) improved water quality, (4) feed quality/optimization and (5) use of zinc/metals. The top 5 measures in terms of perceived ROI were (1) improved internal biosecurity, (2) zinc/metals, (3) diagnostics/action plan, (4) feed quality/optimization and (5) climate/environmental improvements. Univariate linear regression showed that veterinary practitioners rank internal biosecurity, vaccination, use of zinc/metals, feed quality optimization and climate/environmental on average highest, while researchers and professors focused more on increased use of diagnostics and action plans. Financial incentives/penalties ranked low in all countries. Belgian respondents ranked feed quality significantly lower compared to the German respondents while reduction of stocking density was ranked higher in Belgium compared to Denmark. Categorical Principal Component Analysis applied to the average ranking supported the finding that veterinary practitioners had a preference for more practical, common and already known alternatives. The results showed that improvements in biosecurity, increased use of vaccination, use of zinc/metals, feed quality improvement and regular diagnostic testing combined with a clear action plan were perceived to be the most promising alternatives to antimicrobials in industrial pig production based on combined effectiveness, feasibility and ROI.

Herd specific risk factors for Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae infections in suckling pigs at the age of weaning.

BACKGROUND: Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae is the etiologic agent of enzootic pneumonia mainly occurring in fattening pigs. It is assumed that horizontal transmission of the pathogen during nursery and growing phase starts with few suckling pigs vertically infected by the sow. The aim of the present study was the exploration of the herd prevalence of M. hyopneumoniae infections in suckling pigs followed by an investigation of various herd specific factors for their potential of influencing the occurrence of this pathogen at the age of weaning. RESULTS: In this cross-sectional study, 125 breeding herds were examined by taking nasal swabs from 20 suckling pigs in each herd. In total, 3.9% (98/2500) of all nasal swabs were tested positive for M. hyopneumoniae by real-time PCR. Piglets tested positive originated from 46 different herds resulting in an overall herd prevalence of 36.8% (46/125) for M. hyopneumoniae infection in pigs at the age of weaning. While the herds were epidemiologically characterized, the risk for demonstration of M. hyopneumoniae was significantly increased, when the number of purchased gilts per year was more than 120 (OR: 5.8), and when the number of farrowing pens per compartment was higher than 16 (OR: 3.3). In herds with a planned and segregated production, where groups of sows entered previously emptied farrowing units, the risk for demonstration of M. hyopneumoniae in piglets was higher in herds with two or four weeks between batches than in herds with one or three weeks between batches (OR: 2.7). CONCLUSIONS: In this cross-sectional study, several risk factors could be identified enhancing the probability of breeding herds to raise suckling pigs already infected with M. hyopneumoniae at the time of weaning. Interestingly, some factors (farrowing rhythm, gilt acclimatisation issues) were overlapping with those also influencing the seroprevalences among sows or the transmission of the pathogen between older age groups. Taking the multifactorial character of enzootic pneumonia into account, the results of this study substantiate that a comprehensive herd specific prevention programme is a prerequisite to reduce transmission of and disease caused by M. hyopneumoniae.