Accelerated and intensified manufacturing of an adenovirus-vectored vaccine to enable rapid outbreak response.

The Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations' "100-day moonshot" aspires to launch a new vaccine within 100 days of pathogen identification, followed by large-scale vaccine availability within the "second hundred days." Here, we describe work to optimize adenoviral vector manufacturing for rapid response, by minimizing time to clinical trial and first large-scale supply, and maximizing output from the available manufacturing footprint. We describe a rapid virus seed expansion workflow that allows vaccine release to clinical trials within 60 days of antigen sequence identification, followed by vaccine release from globally distributed sites within a further 40 days. We also describe a perfusion-based upstream production process, designed to maximize output while retaining simplicity and suitability for existing manufacturing facilities. This improves upstream volumetric productivity of ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 by approximately fourfold and remains compatible with the existing downstream process, yielding drug substance sufficient for 10,000 doses from each liter of bioreactor capacity. This accelerated manufacturing process, along with other advantages such as thermal stability, supports the ongoing value of adenovirus-vectored vaccines as a rapidly adaptable and deployable platform for emergency response.

Lyophilization to enable distribution of ChAdOx1 and ChAdOx2 adenovirus-vectored vaccines without refrigeration.

Distribution of vaccines which require refrigerated or frozen storage can be challenging and expensive. The adenovirus vector platform has been widely used for COVID-19 vaccines while several further candidate vaccines using the platform are in clinical development. In current liquid formulations, adenoviruses require distribution at 2-8 °C. The development of formulations suitable for ambient temperature distribution would be advantageous. Previous peer-reviewed reports of adenovirus lyophilization are relatively limited. Here, we report the development of a formulation and process for lyophilization of simian adenovirus-vectored vaccines based on the ChAdOx1 platform. We describe the iterative selection of excipients using a design of experiments approach, and iterative cycle improvement to achieve both preservation of potency and satisfactory cake appearance. The resulting method achieved in-process infectivity titre loss of around 50%. After drying, there was negligible further loss over a month at 30 °C. Around 30% of the predrying infectivity remained after a month at 45 °C. This performance is likely to be suitable for 'last leg' distribution at ambient temperature. This work may also facilitate the development of other product presentations using dried simian adenovirus-vectored vaccines.

Machine Learning Model for Chest Radiographs: Using Local Data to Enhance Performance.

PURPOSE: To develop and assess the performance of a machine learning model which screens chest radiographs for 14 labels, and to determine whether fine-tuning the model on local data improves its performance. Generalizability at different institutions has been an obstacle to machine learning model implementation. We hypothesized that the performance of a model trained on an open-source dataset will improve at our local institution after being fine-tuned on local data. METHODS: In this retrospective, institutional review board approved study, an ensemble of neural networks was trained on open-source datasets of chest radiographs for the detection of 14 labels. This model was then fine-tuned using 4510 local radiograph studies, using radiologists' reports as the gold standard to evaluate model performance. Both the open-source and fine-tuned models' accuracy were tested on 802 local radiographs. Receiver-operator characteristic curves were calculated, and statistical analysis was completed using DeLong's method and Wilcoxon signed-rank test. RESULTS: The fine-tuned model identified 12 of 14 pathology labels with area under the curves greater than .75. After fine-tuning with local data, the model performed statistically significantly better overall, and specifically in detecting six pathology labels (P < .01). CONCLUSIONS: A machine learning model able to accurately detect 14 labels simultaneously on chest radiographs was developed using open-source data, and its performance was improved after fine-tuning on local site data. This simple method of fine-tuning existing models on local data could improve the generalizability of existing models across different institutions to further improve their local performance.

Structure of trimeric pre-fusion rabies virus glycoprotein in complex with two protective antibodies.

Rabies virus (RABV) causes lethal encephalitis and is responsible for approximately 60,000 deaths per year. As the sole virion-surface protein, the rabies virus glycoprotein (RABV-G) mediates host-cell entry. RABV-G's pre-fusion trimeric conformation displays epitopes bound by protective neutralizing antibodies that can be induced by vaccination or passively administered for post-exposure prophylaxis. We report a 2.8-Å structure of a RABV-G trimer in the pre-fusion conformation, in complex with two neutralizing and protective monoclonal antibodies, 17C7 and 1112-1, that recognize distinct epitopes. One of these antibodies is a licensed prophylactic (17C7, Rabishield), which we show locks the protein in pre-fusion conformation. Targeted mutations can similarly stabilize RABV-G in the pre-fusion conformation, a key step toward structure-guided vaccine design. These data reveal the higher-order architecture of a key therapeutic target and the structural basis of neutralization by antibodies binding two key antigenic sites, and this will facilitate the development of improved vaccines and prophylactic antibodies.

Manufacturing a chimpanzee adenovirus-vectored SARS-CoV-2 vaccine to meet global needs.

Manufacturing has been the key factor limiting rollout of vaccination during the COVID-19 pandemic, requiring rapid development and large-scale implementation of novel manufacturing technologies. ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 (AZD1222, Vaxzevria) is an efficacious vaccine against SARS-CoV-2, based upon an adenovirus vector. We describe the development of a process for the production of this vaccine and others based upon the same platform, including novel features to facilitate very large-scale production. We discuss the process economics and the "distributed manufacturing" approach we have taken to provide the vaccine at globally-relevant scale and with international security of supply. Together, these approaches have enabled the largest viral vector manufacturing campaign to date, providing a substantial proportion of global COVID-19 vaccine supply at low cost.

Stability of Chimpanzee Adenovirus Vectored Vaccines (ChAdOx1 and ChAdOx2) in Liquid and Lyophilised Formulations.

Adenovirus vectored vaccines have entered global use during the COVID-19 pandemic, and are in development for multiple other human and veterinary applications. An attraction of the technology is the suitability of the vaccines for storage at 2-8 °C for months. Widely used COVID-19 vaccine ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 (University of Oxford/AstraZeneca) is based on a species E simian adenovirus. Species E simian serotypes have been used in a wide range of other development programs, but the stability of such vectors has not been extensively described in the peer-reviewed literature. Here, we explore the stability of two candidate vaccines based on two species E serotypes: a Rift Valley fever vaccine based upon the ChAdOx1 vector (Y25 serotype) used in ChAdOx1 nCoV-19, and a rabies vaccine based upon a ChAdOx2 vector (AdC68 serotype). We describe each vector's stability in liquid and lyophilised formulations using in vitro and in vivo potency measurements. Our data support the suitability of liquid formulations of these vectors for storage at 2-8 °C for up to 1 year, and potentially for nonrefrigerated storage for a brief period during last-leg distribution (perhaps 1-3 days at 20 °C-the precise definition of acceptable last-leg storage conditions would require further product-specific data). Depending upon the level of inprocess potency loss that is economically acceptable, and the level of instorage loss that is compatible with maintenance of acceptable end-of-storage potency, a previously reported lyophilised formulation may enable longer term storage at 20 °C or storage for a number of days at 30 °C.

Characterisation of factors contributing to the performance of nonwoven fibrous matrices as substrates for adenovirus vectored vaccine stabilisation.

Adenovirus vectors offer a platform technology for vaccine development. The value of the platform has been proven during the COVID-19 pandemic. Although good stability at 2-8 °C is an advantage of the platform, non-cold-chain distribution would have substantial advantages, in particular in low-income countries. We have previously reported a novel, potentially less expensive thermostabilisation approach using a combination of simple sugars and glass micro-fibrous matrix, achieving excellent recovery of adenovirus-vectored vaccines after storage at temperatures as high as 45 °C. This matrix is, however, prone to fragmentation and so not suitable for clinical translation. Here, we report an investigation of alternative fibrous matrices which might be suitable for clinical use. A number of commercially-available matrices permitted good protein recovery, quality of sugar glass and moisture content of the dried product but did not achieve the thermostabilisation performance of the original glass fibre matrix. We therefore further investigated physical and chemical characteristics of the glass fibre matrix and its components, finding that the polyvinyl alcohol present in the glass fibre matrix assists vaccine stability. This finding enabled us to identify a potentially biocompatible matrix with encouraging performance. We discuss remaining challenges for transfer of the technology into clinical use, including reliability of process performance.

Synthesis of SMT022357 enantiomers and in vivo evaluation in a Duchenne muscular dystrophy mouse model.

Following on from ezutromid, the first-in-class benzoxazole utrophin modulator that progressed to Phase 2 clinical trials for the treatment of Duchenne muscular dystrophy, a new chemotype was designed to optimise its physicochemical and ADME profile. Herein we report the synthesis of SMT022357, a second generation utrophin modulator preclinical candidate, and an asymmetric synthesis of its constituent enantiomers. The pharmacological properties of both enantiomers were evaluated in vitro and in vivo. No significant difference in the activity or efficacy was observed between the two enantiomers; activity was found to be comparable to the racemic mixture.

2-Arylbenzo[d]oxazole Phosphinate Esters as Second-Generation Modulators of Utrophin for the Treatment of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy.

Utrophin modulation is a promising therapeutic strategy for Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), which should be applicable to all patient populations. Following on from ezutromid, the first-generation utrophin modulator, we describe the development of a second generation of utrophin modulators, based on the bioisosteric replacement of the sulfone group with a phosphinate ester and substitution of the metabolically labile naphthalene with a haloaryl substituent. The improved physicochemical and absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) properties, further reflected in the enhanced pharmacokinetic profile of the most advanced compounds, 30 and 27, led to significantly better in vivo exposure compared to ezutromid and alleviation of the dystrophic phenotype in mdx mice. While 30 was found to have dose-limiting hepatotoxicity, 27 and its enantiomers exhibited limited off-target effects, resulting in a safe profile and highlighting their potential utility as next-generation utrophin modulators suitable for progression toward a future DMD therapy.

The potential of utrophin and dystrophin combination therapies for Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a lethal neuromuscular disorder caused by loss of dystrophin. Several therapeutic modalities are currently in clinical trials but none will achieve maximum functional rescue and full disease correction. Therefore, we explored the potential of combining the benefits of dystrophin with increases of utrophin, an autosomal paralogue of dystrophin. Utrophin and dystrophin can be co-expressed and co-localized at the same muscle membrane. Wild-type (wt) levels of dystrophin are not significantly affected by a moderate increase of utrophin whereas higher levels of utrophin reduce wt dystrophin, suggesting a finite number of actin binding sites at the sarcolemma. Thus, utrophin upregulation strategies may be applied to the more mildly affected Becker patients with lower dystrophin levels. Whereas increased dystrophin in wt animals does not offer functional improvement, overexpression of utrophin in wt mice results in a significant supra-functional benefit over wt. These findings highlight an additive benefit of the combined therapy and potential new unique roles of utrophin. Finally, we show a 30% restoration of wt dystrophin levels, using exon-skipping, together with increased utrophin levels restores dystrophic muscle function to wt levels offering greater therapeutic benefit than either single approach alone. Thus, this combination therapy results in additive functional benefit and paves the way for potential future combinations of dystrophin- and utrophin-based strategies.

Embryonic myosin is a regeneration marker to monitor utrophin-based therapies for DMD.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a lethal, X-linked muscle-wasting disease caused by lack of the cytoskeletal protein dystrophin. Constitutive utrophin expression, a structural and functional paralogue of dystrophin, can successfully prevent the dystrophic pathology in the dystrophin-deficient mdx mouse model. In dystrophic muscles, utrophin is increased as part of the repair process and localized at the sarcolemma of regenerating myofibers. The presence of developmental myosin such as embryonic myosin (MyHC-emb) and neonatal represents a useful marker of muscle regeneration and a meaningful indicator of muscle damage, which correlates with the clinical severity of milder Becker muscular dystrophy and DMD patients. In the present study, we demonstrate that MyHC-emb is a robust marker of regeneration at different ages and in different skeletal muscles. We also evaluate the correlation between utrophin, dystrophin and MyHC-emb in wild-type (wt) and regenerating dystrophic muscles. Restoration of dystrophin significantly reduced MyHC-emb levels. Similarly, overexpression of utrophin in the transgenic mdx-Fiona mice reduced the number of MyHC-emb positive fibers to wt level, prevented the regenerative process and rescued the muscle function. In contrast, the absence of utrophin in the dystrophin-deficient double-knockout mice resulted in a higher MyHC-emb content and in a more severe dystrophic pathophysiology than in mdx mice. These data illustrate the importance of monitoring utrophin and MyHC-emb levels in the preclinical evaluation of therapies and provide translational support for the use of developmental myosin as a disease biomarker in DMD clinical trials.

Variation in faecal microbiota in a group of horses managed at pasture over a 12-month period.

Colic (abdominal pain) is a common cause of mortality in horses. Change in management of horses is associated with increased colic risk and seasonal patterns of increased risk have been identified. Shifts in gut microbiota composition in response to management change have been proposed as one potential underlying mechanism for colic. However, the intestinal microbiota in normal horses and how this varies over different seasons has not previously been investigated. In this study the faecal microbiota composition was studied over 12 months in a population of horses managed at pasture with minimal changes in management. We hypothesised that gut microbiota would be stable in this population over time. Faecal samples were collected every 14 days from 7 horses for 52 weeks and the faecal microbiota was characterised by next-generation sequencing of 16S rRNA genes. The faecal microbiota was dominated by members of the phylum Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes throughout. Season, supplementary forage and ambient weather conditions were significantly associated with change in the faecal microbiota composition. These results provide important baseline information demonstrating physiologic variation in the faecal microbiota of normal horses over a 12-month period without development of colic.

Microbiome balance in sputum determined by PCR stratifies COPD exacerbations and shows potential for selective use of antibiotics.

BACKGROUND: While a subgroup of patients with exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) clearly benefit from antibiotics, their identification remains challenging. We hypothesised that selective assessment of the balance between the two dominant bacterial groups (Gammaproteobacteria (G) and Firmicutes (F)) in COPD sputum samples might reveal a subgroup with a bacterial community structure change at exacerbation that was restored to baseline on recovery and potentially reflects effective antibiotic treatment. METHODS: Phylogenetically specific 16S rRNA genes were determined by quantitative real time PCR to derive a G:F ratio in serial sputum samples from 66 extensively-phenotyped COPD exacerbation episodes. RESULTS: Cluster analysis based on Euclidean distance measures, generated across the 4 visit times (stable and exacerbation day: 0,14 and 42) for the 66 exacerbation episodes, revealed three subgroups designated HG, HF, and GF reflecting predominance or equivalence of the two target bacterial groups. While the other subgroups showed no change at exacerbation, the HG cluster (n = 20) was characterized by G:F ratios that increased significantly at exacerbation and returned to baseline on recovery (p<0.00001); ratios in the HG group also correlated positively with inflammatory markers and negatively with FEV1. At exacerbation G:F showed a significant receiver-operator-characteristic curve to identify the HG subgroup (AUC 0.90, p<0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: The G:F ratio at exacerbation can be determined on a timescale compatible with decisions regarding clinical management. We propose that the G:F ratio has potential for use as a biomarker enabling selective use of antibiotics in COPD exacerbations and hence warrants further clinical evaluation.

Identification of serum protein biomarkers for utrophin based DMD therapy.

Despite promising therapeutic avenues, there is currently no effective treatment for Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), a lethal monogenic disorder caused by the loss of the large cytoskeletal protein, dystrophin. A highly promising approach to therapy, applicable to all DMD patients irrespective to their genetic defect, is to modulate utrophin, a functional paralogue of dystrophin, able to compensate for the primary defects of DMD restoring sarcolemmal stability. One of the major difficulties in assessing the effectiveness of therapeutic strategies is to define appropriate outcome measures. In the present study, we utilised an aptamer based proteomics approach to profile 1,310 proteins in plasma of wild-type, mdx and Fiona (mdx overexpressing utrophin) mice. Comparison of the C57 and mdx sera revealed 83 proteins with statistically significant >2 fold changes in dystrophic serum abundance. A large majority of previously described biomarkers (ANP32B, THBS4, CAMK2A/B/D, CYCS, CAPNI) were normalised towards wild-type levels in Fiona animals. This work also identified potential mdx markers specific to increased utrophin (DUS3, TPI1) and highlights novel mdx biomarkers (GITR, MYBPC1, HSP60, SIRT2, SMAD3, CNTN1). We define a panel of putative protein mdx biomarkers to evaluate utrophin based strategies which may help to accelerate their translation to the clinic.

Herpes Zoster Vaccine Response in Inflammatory Bowel Disease Patients on Low-dose Immunosuppression.

BACKGROUND: Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) patients are at an increased risk of developing herpes zoster (HZ), especially when immunosuppressed. HZ may be preventable with the herpes zoster vaccine (HZV), but many patients are not offered vaccination over concern regarding efficacy and fear of adverse events. Although the Center for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that low-dose immunosuppression is not a contraindication, few IBD patients on these medications are receiving HZV. METHODS: This study was a prospective clinical trial to assess the safety and immunogenicity of HZV among 2 groups of IBD patients. Group A consisted of 14 patients on low-dose immunomodulators and group B consisted of 25 patients either on 5-aminosalicylic acid or no IBD therapy. Blood samples were obtained to measure immune responses. RESULTS: HZ specific immunoglobulin G rose significantly in both groups but the response was lower in the immunosuppressed group (P = 0.0002). Peripheral blood mononuclear cell secretion of Tumor necrosis factor-α in response to HZ antigen increased after HZV in group B, but not in group A. Interleukin-8 secretion increased in both groups, but the response was much higher in group B. There were no significant differences in adverse events between groups. No patients developed a HZ-like rash within 1 year after vaccination. CONCLUSIONS: IBD patients on low-dose immunosuppressive therapy have a blunted immune response to HZV as compared with nonimmunosuppressed subjects. Despite this, immunosuppressed IBD patients are able to mount a statistically significant immune response. There were no serious adverse events to HZV.

Host Immune Response to Clostridium difficile Infection in Inflammatory Bowel Disease Patients.

BACKGROUND: Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) affects patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The aim of this study was to compare humoral response to C. difficile toxins in IBD patients and control outpatients. METHODS: We prospectively followed adult IBD patients and control subjects with serum and stool samples obtained at enrollment and during periods of CDI and tested by PCR. Semiquantitative serum levels of IgM, IgG, and IgA to C. difficile toxins A and B were measured. RESULTS: Overall, 119 stool and 117 serum samples were obtained from 150 subjects. Different levels of IgA to toxin A (P = 0.0016) and toxin B (P = 0.0468) were noted between different IBD groups. Toxin A IgA levels were higher in the Crohn's disease group (P = 0.0321) and ileal pouch anal anastomosis (IPAA) group (P = 0.001) compared with the ulcerative colitis (UC) group, and toxin B IgA levels were higher in the IPAA group compared with the UC group (P = 0.0309). There were lower levels of toxin A IgA in IBD patients compared with those in subjects without new CDI (P = 0.0488) and higher levels in IBD patients with compared with those in subjects without CDI history before enrollment (P = 0.016). There were nonsignificant lower toxin A IgG levels in IBD patients compared with those in subjects without prior CDI (P = 0.095) and higher levels in control subjects with a history of CDI compared with IBD patients with prior CDI (P = 0.049). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with UC have lower IgA levels to C. difficile toxins compared with those with Crohn's disease and those after IPAA. Patients with IBD with prior CDI failed to demonstrate any increase in antitoxin IgG. Our findings suggest that IBD patients may benefit from immunization strategies targeting C. difficile toxins.

Elastic scattering spectroscopy as an optical marker of inflammatory bowel disease activity and subtypes.

BACKGROUND: In 10% to 15% of individuals, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is difficult to classify as ulcerative colitis (UC) or Crohn's disease (CD). Previous work has demonstrated that probe-based elastic scattering spectroscopy (ESS) can produce spectra, informed by parameters like tissue ultrastructure and hemoglobin content, capable of differentiating pathologies. This study investigates whether ESS is an in vivo optical biomarker for the presence, activity, and type of IBD in the colon. METHODS: Pilot study, a retrospective data analysis. ESS spectra of endoscopically normal and inflamed colon were obtained from 48 patients with IBD and 46 non-IBD controls. Measurements from patients with IBD were categorized as CD or UC based on clinical diagnosis. Spectra were analyzed using high-dimensional methods. Leave-one-patient-out cross-validation was used to obtain diagnostic performance estimates. RESULTS: Patients with IBD were distinguishable from non-IBD controls with a sensitivity of 0.93 and specificity of 0.91 based on readings from endoscopically normal mucosa, and 0.94 and 0.93 from inflamed mucosa. In patients with IBD, histologically normal and inflamed colon were distinguishable with per-class accuracies of 0.83 and 0.89, respectively; histologically normal from inactive inflammation with accuracies of 0.73 and 0.89, respectively; and inactive from active colitis with accuracies of 0.87 and 0.84, respectively. The diagnosis of CD versus UC was made with per-class accuracies of 0.92 and 0.87 in normal and 0.87 and 0.85 in inflamed mucosa, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: ESS, a simple, low-cost clinically friendly optical biopsy modality, has the potential to enhance the endoscopic assessment of IBD and its activity in real time and may help to distinguish CD from UC.

Environmental influences on the onset and clinical course of Crohn's disease-part 1: an overview of external risk factors.

The pathogenesis of Crohn's disease (CD) involves host, genetic, and environmental factors. These factors result in disturbances in the innate and adaptive immune systems and composition of the intestinal microbiota. Epidemiologic and migration studies support an environmental component in the development of CD. Environmental risk factors include childhood hygiene, air pollution, breastfeeding, smoking, diet, stress, exercise, seasonal variation, and appendectomy. This review, part 1 of a 2-part series, provides an overview of these external contributors to the development or exacerbation of CD. Part 2, which will be published in a subsequent issue, will discuss the influences of infections, vaccinations, and medications (including antibiotics, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents, and oral contraceptives) on CD.