Social cognition in children with neurofibromatosis type 1.

INTRODUCTION: Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is a genetic pathology that can lead to impaired social functioning that has a negative impact on patients' quality of life. To date, although the hypothesis of impaired social cognition has been proposed as a potential explanation for these difficulties, very few studies have focused on theory of mind in children with NF1. Furthermore, other complex sociocognitive abilities have never been investigated. The aim of the present study was to assess theory of mind, moral reasoning, and social information processing in children with NF1 compared with a control group. METHOD: We administered the Paediatric Evaluation of Emotions, Relationships and Socialization® to 38 children with NF1 aged between 8 years and 16 years 11 months (mean = 11.4, SD = 2.3) and 43 control children with comparable sociodemographic characteristics. RESULTS: Patients performed significantly worse than controls on moral reasoning and social information processing tests, but there was no significant difference on theory of mind. CONCLUSIONS: These results seem to confirm the presence of social cognition difficulties in NF1 that could explain, at least in part, their social difficulties, although not all dimensions are concerned. The differences between the processes we assessed are discussed in relation to the methodologies used to measure them, and raises questions about the complementarity of traditional tools and more ecological assessments.

Social cognition in adult survivors of brain tumors: studying the relationship between theory of mind and quality of life.

OBJECTIVE: The present study is the first to examine theory of mind (ToM) sequelae in a sample of adult survivors of primary brain tumors, and to investigate the assumed relationship between ToM and health-related quality of life (HRQoL). METHOD: Participants were 40 long-term adult survivors of primary brain tumors and 40 matched healthy controls. They completed ToM tests (Faux-Pas test and Advanced ToM task) and two questionnaires assessing HRQoL (36-Item Short-Form Health Survey and EORTC QLQ-C30/QLQ-BN20). Their relatives also completed an observer-rated version of the SF-36 questionnaire. RESULTS: Survivors performed worse than controls only on the Advanced ToM task. Overall, patients and caregivers reported more problems than healthy controls and their relatives regarding both global HRQoL and its social/emotional aspects. No relationship was found between ToM and HRQoL scores. CONCLUSION: Adult survivors of primary brain tumors may exhibit ToM deficits several years after treatment and report more problems on social/emotional HRQoL components. Our findings highlight the need to consider these late effects in survivors' long-term follow-up, even if the clinical involvement of ToM deficits still needs to be elucidated. The assessment of ToM deficits and their potential impact on survivors' everyday life is thoroughly discussed.

Perception and recognition of primary and secondary emotions by children with neurofibromatosis type 1.

Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is a genetic disease that can lead to impaired social adaptation and functioning, thus affecting quality of life. To date, studies of these children's social cognition abilities have been scant and far from exhaustive. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to assess the ability of children with NF1, compared with controls, to process facial expressions of emotions - not only including the usual primary emotions (happiness, anger, surprise, fear, sadness and disgust), but secondary emotions, too. To do so, the links between this ability and the characteristics of the disease (mode of transmission, visibility, and severity) were examined. A total of 38 children with NF1 aged 8-16 years 11 months (mean = 11.4, SD = 2.3) and 43 sociodemographically comparable control children performed the emotion perception and recognition tests of a social cognition battery. Results confirmed that the processing of primary and secondary emotions is impaired in children with NF1, but there were no significant links with either mode of transmission, severity, or visibility. These results encourage further comprehensive assessments of emotions in NF1, and suggest that investigations should be extended to higher level social cognition skills, such as theory of mind and moral judgments.

Grey matter volume and CSF biomarkers predict neuropsychological subtypes of MCI.

There is increasing evidence of different subtypes of individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). An important line of research is whether neuropsychologically-defined subtypes have distinct patterns of neurodegeneration and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarker composition. In our study, we demonstrated that MCI participants of the ADNI database (N = 640) can be discriminated into 3 coherent neuropsychological subgroups. Our clustering approach revealed amnestic MCI, mixed MCI, and cluster-derived normal subgroups. Furthermore, classification modeling revealed that specific predictive features can be used to differentiate amnestic and mixed MCI from cognitively normal (CN) controls: CSF Aß142 concentration for the former and CSF Aß1-42 concentration, tau concentration as well as grey matter atrophy (especially in the temporal and occipital lobes) for the latter. In contrast, participants from the cluster-derived normal subgroup exhibited an identical profile to CN controls in terms of cognitive performance, brain structure, and CSF biomarker levels. Our comprehensive data analytics strategy provides further evidence that multimodal neuropsychological subtyping is both clinically and neurobiologically meaningful.

Associations between Adult Primary Brain Tumor Survivors' Behavioral Executive Functions, Health Related Quality of Life and their Caregivers' Health Related Quality : A cross-sectional study.

The present study focused on adult primary brain tumor (PBT) survivors' caregivers. The main objective was to study associations between PBT survivors' health-related quality of life (HRQOL), their behavioral executive functions (EF) and their caregivers' HRQOL. Forty PBT survivors of PBT and 37 caregivers (mostly patient's spouses 81.08%; n = 30) participated in the study. PBT survivors completed a cancer related Quality of Life (QOL) questionnaire. Caregivers completed informant rated HRQOL and behavioral EF reports relating to PBT survivors and a self-rated HRQOL questionnaire relating to themselves. Correlational and multiple regression analyses were conducted. No associations were found between caregivers' physical HRQOL and PBT survivors' HRQOL nor behavioral EF. Analyses yielded several significant correlations between caregivers' mental HRQOL and variables pertaining to PBT survivors' HRQOL and behavioral EF. Multiple regression analyses showed that caregivers' mental HRQOL is predicted by PBT survivors' mental HRQOL, global cancer-related QOL scores and global behavioral EF scores. This study provides evidence suggesting that during the survivorship phase, at an average of 3.67 (SD = 2.31) years following treatment for a PBT, caregivers mental HRQOL is linked to PBT survivors' long-term effects. These findings shed some light regarding post-cancer care for both PBT survivors and their caregivers.

Virtual Reality-Assisted Awake Craniotomy: A Retrospective Study.

BACKGROUND: Awake craniotomy (AC) with brain mapping for language and motor functions is often performed for tumors within or adjacent to eloquent brain regions. However, other important functions, such as vision and visuospatial and social cognition, are less frequently mapped, at least partly due to the difficulty of defining tasks suitable for the constrained AC environment. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this retrospective study was to demonstrate, through illustrative cases, how a virtual reality headset (VRH) equipped with eye tracking can open up new possibilities for the mapping of language, the visual field and complex cognitive functions in the operating room. METHODS: Virtual reality (VR) tasks performed during 69 ACs were evaluated retrospectively. Three types of VR tasks were used: VR-DO80 for language evaluation, VR-Esterman for visual field assessment and VR-TANGO for the evaluation of visuospatial and social functions. RESULTS: Surgery was performed on the right hemisphere for 29 of the 69 ACs performed (42.0%). One AC (1.5%) was performed with all three VR tasks, 14 ACs (20.3%) were performed with two VR tasks and 54 ACs (78.3%) were performed with one VR task. The median duration of VRH use per patient was 15.5 min. None of the patients had "VR sickness". Only transitory focal seizures of no consequence and unrelated to VRH use were observed during AC. Patients were able to perform all VR tasks. Eye tracking was functional, enabling the medical team to analyze the patients' attention and exploration of the visual field of the VRH directly. CONCLUSIONS: This preliminary experiment shows that VR approaches can provide neurosurgeons with a way of investigating various functions, including social cognition during AC. Given the rapid advances in VR technology and the unbelievable sense of immersion provided by the most recent devices, there is a need for ongoing reflection and discussions of the ethical and methodological considerations associated with the use of these advanced technologies in AC and brain mapping procedures.

Accurate machine learning prediction of sexual orientation based on brain morphology and intrinsic functional connectivity.

BACKGROUND: Sexual orientation in humans represents a multilevel construct that is grounded in both neurobiological and environmental factors. OBJECTIVE: Here, we bring to bear a machine learning approach to predict sexual orientation from gray matter volumes (GMVs) or resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) in a cohort of 45 heterosexual and 41 homosexual participants. METHODS: In both brain assessments, we used penalized logistic regression models and nonparametric permutation. RESULTS: We found an average accuracy of 62% (±6.72) for predicting sexual orientation based on GMV and an average predictive accuracy of 92% (±9.89) using RSFC. Regions in the precentral gyrus, precuneus and the prefrontal cortex were significantly informative for distinguishing heterosexual from homosexual participants in both the GMV and RSFC settings. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that, aside from self-reports, RSFC offers neurobiological information valuable for highly accurate prediction of sexual orientation. We demonstrate for the first time that sexual orientation is reflected in specific patterns of RSFC, which enable personalized, brain-based predictions of this highly complex human trait. While these results are preliminary, our neurobiologically based prediction framework illustrates the great value and potential of RSFC for revealing biologically meaningful and generalizable predictive patterns in the human brain.

Phenotypical predictors of pregnancy-related restless legs syndrome and their association with basal ganglia and the limbic circuits.

Restless legs syndrome (RLS) in pregnancy is a common disorder with a multifactorial etiology. A neurological and obstetrical cohort of 308 postpartum women was screened for RLS within 1 to 6 days of childbirth and 12 weeks postpartum. Of the 308 young mothers, 57 (prevalence rate 19%) were identified as having been affected by RLS symptoms in the recently completed pregnancy. Structural and functional MRI was obtained from 25 of these 57 participants. A multivariate two-window algorithm was employed to systematically chart the relationship between brain structures and phenotypical predictors of RLS. A decreased volume of the parietal, orbitofrontal and frontal areas shortly after delivery was found to be linked to persistent RLS symptoms up to 12 weeks postpartum, the symptoms' severity and intensity in the most recent pregnancy, and a history of RLS in previous pregnancies. The same negative relationship was observed between brain volume and not being married, not receiving any iron supplement and higher numbers of stressful life events. High cortisol levels, being married and receiving iron supplements, on the other hand, were found to be associated with increased volumes in the bilateral striatum. Investigating RLS symptoms in pregnancy within a brain-phenotype framework may help shed light on the heterogeneity of the condition.

Relationships between executive functioning and health-related quality of life in adult survivors of brain tumor and matched healthy controls.

INTRODUCTION: Few studies have considered health-related quality of life (HRQOL) as a primary outcome measure in adult survivors of primary brain tumor (PBT), and fewer still have studied the cognitive factors that may influence it. Research suggests that executive functions (EFs) are associated with HRQOL, but there is scant evidence to support this. The present study was conducted to (1) extend prior findings about HRQOL limitations in a sample of stable, long-term adult survivors of PBT, (2) investigate the associations between objective/reported EFs and HRQOL, and (3) identify the EFs that contribute most to HRQOL. METHOD: We recruited 40 survivors of PBT (> 2 years post-treatment) and 40 matched healthy controls. Participants completed an objective EF assessment (inhibition, working memory, shifting, and rule detection) and two self-report questionnaires probing EFs (Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Adult) and HRQOL (Medical Outcomes Study Short-Form 36). Participants' relatives completed observer-rated versions of these questionnaires. RESULTS: Patients' objective EF performances were relatively intact. However, patients and caregivers reported significantly more problems than healthy controls and their relatives, for both EFs and HRQOL. There were only negligible links between objective EFs and HRQOL, whereas numerous associations were found between reported EFs and HRQOL components. ANCOVA models revealed that specific reported EF processes contributed to both the physical and mental components of HRQOL, regardless of group. CONCLUSIONS: From a clinical point of view, this study demonstrates that even several years after end of treatment, adult PBT survivors experience substantial problems across different HRQOL domains. HRQOL assessment should therefore be part of the long-term follow-up of PBT survivors, and clinicians should consider EF limitations when designing appropriate survivorship care plans. These findings indicate that cognitive interventions targeting EFs could improve HRQOL.

Patient-reported functional executive challenges and caregiver confirmation in adult brain tumor survivors.

PURPOSE: The main objective of this study was to provide further information concerning the validity of patient-reported executive function (EF) in survivors of primary brain tumor (PBT) compared with a report provided by each patient's caregiver. METHODS: Forty survivors of PBT, 40 non-cancer controls and their proxies completed an assessment of functional executive disorders (e.g., planning, inhibition, shifting, action initiation). Comparisons of self and informant EF reports were examined, for both patients and non-cancer controls. The extent of the concordance between patients' reports and their caregivers' reports was also determined. RESULTS: PBT survivors and their caregivers reported more problems related to EF in contrast with the non-cancer comparison group (significant differences). There was a high level of agreement between patients' and caregivers' ratings within the patient group. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides evidence suggesting that at an average of 3.67 (SD = 2.31) years following treatment for a PBT, EF difficulties are reported by patients and their caregivers. This study establishes a consistency between what is reported by survivors and what is reported by those who frequently interact with them. Further research investigating the link between these ratings and quality of life as well as other functions is encouraged. IMPLICATIONS FOR CANCER SURVIVORS: This study's results demonstrate the importance of listening to PBT survivors' perception of EF difficulties. While not confirmed by neuropsychological evaluations, the functional executive challenges reported by these survivors' close relatives reflect what PBT survivors themselves report. Specialists should pay close attention to these difficulties to guarantee optimal post-cancer care.

Behavior Score-Embedded Brain Encoder Network for Improved Classification of Alzheimer Disease Using Resting State fMRI.

The ability to accurately detect onset of dementia is important in the treatment of the disease. Clinically, the diagnosis of Alzheimer Disease (AD) and Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) patients are based on an integrated assessment of psychological tests and brain imaging such as positron emission tomography (PET) and anatomical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In this work using two different datasets, we propose a behavior score-embedded encoder network (BSEN) that integrates regularly adminstrated psychological tests information into the encoding procedure of representing subject's resting-state fMRI data for automatic classification tasks. BSEN is based on a 3D convolutional autoencoder structure with contrastive loss jointly optimized using behavior scores from Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR). Our proposed classification framework of using BSEN achieved an overall recognition accuracy of 59.44% (3-class classification: AD, MCI and Healthy Control), and we further extracted the most discriminative regions between healthy control (HC) and AD patients.

Patterns of autism symptoms: hidden structure in the ADOS and ADI-R instruments.

We simultaneously revisited the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) and Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) with a comprehensive data-analytics strategy. Here, the combination of pattern-analysis algorithms and extensive data resources (n = 266 patients aged 7-49 years) allowed identifying coherent clinical constellations in and across ADI-R and ADOS assessments widespread in clinical practice. Our clustering approach revealed low- and high-severity patient groups, as well as a group scoring high only in the ADI-R domains, providing quantitative contours for the widely assumed autism subtypes. Sparse regression approaches uncovered the most clinically predictive questionnaire domains. The social and communication domains of the ADI-R showed convincing performance to predict the patients' symptom severity. Finally, we explored the relative importance of each of the ADI-R and ADOS domains conditioning on age, sex, and fluid IQ in our sample. The collective results suggest that (i) identifying autism subtypes and severity for a given individual may be most manifested in the ADI-R social and communication domains, (ii) the ADI-R might be a more appropriate tool to accurately capture symptom severity, and (iii) the ADOS domains were more relevant than the ADI-R domains to capture sex differences.

Study of the theory of mind in normal aging: focus on the deception detection and its links with other cognitive functions.

Detection of deception is crucial to avoid negative circumstances (financial frauds, social tricks) in daily living. Considering that this cognitive function is especially supported by the prefrontal cortex of the human brain and that these cerebral regions change with advanced age, deception detection may also change with aging. Our purpose is to study this complex ability and its potential links with other cognitive functions, such as the executive control, in normal aging. Thirty-five young adults (YA) aged from 20 to 40, thirty-five old adults (OA) aged from 65 to 79 and thirty very old adults (VOA) aged from 80 to 95 were involved in this study. We propose a novel neuropsychological test (inspired by Theory of Mind Picture Story task) assessing the ability to understand deceptive and cooperative interactions, and tasks involving executive processes (monitoring, task setting, flexibility) to all participants. Between-group analyses show that older participants performed worse than YA on deceptive, cooperative and mixed situations (involving deception and reciprocity) of our task. Significant correlations exist between the deception-cooperation detection and the executive functions. Our results show that these frontal abilities decline after 65 years, even more after 80 years, and they are involved on the deceptive-cooperative situations. The verbal IQ is also linked with the deception-cooperation detection. This suggests that mixed cognitive trainings would allow older adults to detect more easily bad intentions of others, to adjust their behavior to context and to achieve their goals with less risk.

Numerical cognition: A meta-analysis of neuroimaging, transcranial magnetic stimulation and brain-damaged patients studies.

This article offers the first comprehensive review examining the neurocognitive bases of numerical cognition from neuroimaging, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) and brain-damaged patients studies. We focused on the predictions derived from the Triple Code Model (TCM), particularly the assumption that the representation of numerical quantities rests on a single format-independent representation (i.e., the analogical code) involving both intraparietal sulci (IPS). To do so, we conducted a meta-analysis based on 28 neuroimaging, 12 TMS and 12 brain-damaged patients studies, including arithmetic and magnitude tasks in symbolic and non-symbolic formats. Our findings generally agree with the TCM predictions indicating that both IPS are engaged in all tasks. Nonetheless, the results of brain-damaged patients studies conflicted with neuroimaging and TMS studies, suggesting a right hemisphere lateralization for non-symbolic formats. Our findings also led us to discuss the involvement of brain regions other than IPS in the processing of the analogical code as well as the neural substrate of other codes underlying numerical cognition (i.e., the auditory-verbal code).

Frontal Lobe Functions in Normal Aging: Metacognition, Autonomy, and Quality of Life.

BACKGROUND: Starting from the "frontal lobe hypothesis of cognitive aging", we aim to study the metacognitive functions (deception, reciprocity, cognitive and affective theory of mind), autonomy and quality of life in normal aging. METHODS: Eighty healthy subjects (30 young adults [YA] aged 20-40, 30 old adults [OA] aged 65-79 and 20 very old adults [VOA] aged 80 and over) participated in our study. Standard and novel neuropsychological tasks have been used, assessing abilities to understand others' mental and affective states, deceptive and cooperative situations. RESULTS: OA and VOA's performances are significantly poorer than those of YA on first-/second-order false beliefs, deception, reciprocity and emotion recognition tasks. VOA have made more errors than other participants on control false beliefs, general cognition, and memory tasks. Normal aging seems also to be characterized by a reduction in processing speed. The level of instrumental activities of daily living decreases with aging. Theory of mind is associated with individual general cognitive state and executive functions, but not with OA and VOA's levels of autonomy and quality of life. CONCLUSION: In this study, we have shown an age-related deterioration of metacognitive functions, which does not seem to be associated with old adults' autonomy and satisfaction of life. A good level of mental activity could be necessary to maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships.

A sociocognitive approach to social problem solving in patients with traumatic brain injury: a pilot study.

PRIMARY OBJECTIVE: Patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) have difficulty dealing with the social world and may display inappropriate social behavior that negatively affects their social and occupational rehabilitation. This difficulty may be explained by a social problem-solving (SPS) impairment, but little is yet known about the cognitive processes involved in the ability to solve social problems. Several publications have demonstrated that executive functions are related to social problem solving, but the role of social cognition needs to be confirmed. The present pilot study examined the expected relationships between SPS ability and both social cognition and social behavioral skills. RESEARCH DESIGN: We compared the performances of 15 patients with TBI on SPS, theory-of-mind and social behavior tasks with those of 25 matched healthy controls. MAIN OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: Our results showed for the first time that impaired social problem solving is associated with a theory-of-mind deficit, but surprisingly not with executive impairment. There was no evidence that SPS deficits predict social behavioral disorders. CONCLUSIONS: Studying social problem solving in patients with TBI may inform the design of more appropriate methods of social rehabilitation.

Multi-task learning with a natural metric for quantitative structure activity relationship learning.

The goal of quantitative structure activity relationship (QSAR) learning is to learn a function that, given the structure of a small molecule (a potential drug), outputs the predicted activity of the compound. We employed multi-task learning (MTL) to exploit commonalities in drug targets and assays. We used datasets containing curated records about the activity of specific compounds on drug targets provided by ChEMBL. Totally, 1091 assays have been analysed. As a baseline, a single task learning approach that trains random forest to predict drug activity for each drug target individually was considered. We then carried out feature-based and instance-based MTL to predict drug activities. We introduced a natural metric of evolutionary distance between drug targets as a measure of tasks relatedness. Instance-based MTL significantly outperformed both, feature-based MTL and the base learner, on 741 drug targets out of 1091. Feature-based MTL won on 179 occasions and the base learner performed best on 171 drug targets. We conclude that MTL QSAR is improved by incorporating the evolutionary distance between targets. These results indicate that QSAR learning can be performed effectively, even if little data is available for specific drug targets, by leveraging what is known about similar drug targets.

Theory of Mind Impairments Highlighted With an Ecological Performance-Based Test Indicate Behavioral Executive Deficits in Traumatic Brain Injury.

Background: In view of the recent literature, the negative impact of traumatic brain injury (TBI) on social cognition remains a debated issue. On one hand, a considerable number of studies reported significant impairments in emotion recognition, empathy, moral reasoning, social problem solving, and mentalizing or theory of mind (ToM) abilities in patients with TBI. On the other hand, the ecological validity of social cognition tasks is still a matter of concern and debate for clinicians and researchers. Objectives: The objectives of the present study were 2-fold: (1) to assess social cognition in TBI with an ecological performance-based test which focuses on ToM ability, and (2) to study the relationship between performances on this task and behavioral disorders. To this end, 47 patients with moderate to severe TBI in the chronic stage were assessed with a ToM task, the Movie for the Assessment of Social Cognition (MASC), a film displaying social interactions in natural settings and asking for an evaluation of the emotions, thoughts, and intentions of the characters. Behavioral disorders were assessed with the Behavioral Dysexecutive Syndrome Inventory (BDSI), a structured interview of an informant in assessing changes compared with previous behavior in 12 domains. Results: Patients were significantly less accurate in mental state attribution than a demographically matched group of 38 healthy control subjects. Significant others of patients also reported more behavioral executive problems than controls' relatives on most of the domains of the BDSI. In addition, social cognition performance in the MASC was significantly correlated with behavioral dysexecutive problems rated by proxies on the BDSI. Conclusions: This study is the first to find association between impairments in mentalizing abilities in the MASC and behavioral impairments in patients with TBI, confirming the added value of this ecological task and that the recognition of social signals is a key element for adequate behavioral functioning.

Patterns of schizophrenia symptoms: hidden structure in the PANSS questionnaire.

The clinical presentation of patients with schizophrenia has long been described to be very heterogeneous. Coherent symptom profiles can probably be directly derived from behavioral manifestations quantified in medical questionnaires. The combination of machine learning algorithms and an international multi-site dataset (n = 218 patients) identified distinctive patterns underlying schizophrenia from the widespread PANSS questionnaire. Our clustering approach revealed a negative symptom patient group as well as a moderate and a severe group, giving further support for the existence of schizophrenia subtypes. Additionally, emerging regression analyses uncovered the most clinically predictive questionnaire items. Small subsets of PANSS items showed convincing forecasting performance in single patients. These item subsets encompassed the entire symptom spectrum confirming that the different facets of schizophrenia can be shown to enable improved clinical diagnosis and medical action in patients. Finally, we did not find evidence for complicated relationships among the PANSS items in our sample. Our collective results suggest that identifying best treatment for a given individual may be grounded in subtle item combinations that transcend the long-trusted positive, negative, and cognitive categories.

Environmental dependency phenomena in schizophrenia: a pilot study.

INTRODUCTION: Environmental dependency phenomena refer to the enslavement of patients' performances under the characteristics of the tasks and were first described in case of prefrontal lobe damage. Two forms of environmental dependency, executive and social, may be dissociated, which involve respectively dorsolateral and orbital prefrontal cortex (PFC) dysfunction. Schizophrenia is widely considered to be caused by PFC dysfunction, but no study to date has addressed environmental dependency in this pathology. METHODS: We compared patients (N = 17) and healthy controls (N = 28) on a task dedicated to the study of environmental dependency. RESULTS: Our results demonstrate the presence of environmental dependency in schizophrenia. Each form of environmental dependency can be highlighted independently, as previously demonstrated by studies with prefrontal patients. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest specific prefrontal dysfunction for each subgroup of patients and demonstrate a dissociation between socio-cognitive and neurocognitive performance in schizophrenia. Additionally, we found relationships between symptomatology and environmental dependency. This pilot study supports the relevance of studying environmental dependency to highlight specific patterns of prefrontal disorders in schizophrenia, which may contribute to a better understanding of PFC dysfunction in schizophrenia.