Interactions between kidney disease and diabetes: dangerous liaisons.

BACKGROUND: Type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) globally affects 18-20 % of adults over the age of 65 years. Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is one of the most frequent and dangerous complications of DM2, affecting about one-third of the patients with DM2. In addition to the pancreas, adipocytes, liver, and intestines, the kidneys also play an important role in glycemic control, particularly due to renal contribution to gluconeogenesis and tubular reabsorption of glucose. METHODS: In this review article, based on a report of discussions from an interdisciplinary group of experts in the areas of endocrinology, diabetology and nephrology, we detail the relationship between diabetes and kidney disease, addressing the care in the diagnosis, the difficulties in achieving glycemic control and possible treatments that can be applied according to the different degrees of impairment. DISCUSSION: Glucose homeostasis is extremely altered in patients with DKD, who are exposed to a high risk of both hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia. Both high and low glycemic levels are associated with increased morbidity and shortened survival in this group of patients. Factors that are associated with an increased risk of hypoglycemia in DKD patients include decreased renal gluconeogenesis, deranged metabolic pathways (including altered metabolism of medications) and decreased insulin clearance. On the other hand, decrease glucose filtration and excretion, and inflammation-induce insulin resistance are predisposing factors to hyperglycemic episodes. CONCLUSION: Appropriate glycaemic monitoring and control tailored for diabetic patients is required to avoid hypoglycaemia and other glycaemic disarrays in patients with DM2 and kidney disease. Understanding the renal physiology and pathophysiology of DKD has become essential to all specialties treating diabetic patients. Disseminating this knowledge and detailing the evidence will be important to initiate breakthrough research and to encourage proper treatment of this group of patients.

Management of diabetes mellitus in individuals with chronic kidney disease: therapeutic perspectives and glycemic control.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the therapeutic options for diabetes treatment and their potential side effects, in addition to analyzing the risks and benefits of tight glycemic control in patients with diabetic kidney disease. For this review, a search was performed using several pre-defined keyword combinations and their equivalents: "diabetes kidney disease" and "renal failure" in combination with "diabetes treatment" and "oral antidiabetic drugs" or "oral hypoglycemic agents." The search was performed in PubMed, Endocrine Abstracts and the Cochrane Library from January 1980 up to January 2015. Diabetes treatment in patients with diabetic kidney disease is challenging, in part because of progression of renal failure-related changes in insulin signaling, glucose transport and metabolism, favoring both hyperglycemic peaks and hypoglycemia. Additionally, the decline in renal function impairs the clearance and metabolism of antidiabetic agents and insulin, frequently requiring reassessment of prescriptions. The management of hyperglycemia in patients with diabetic kidney disease is even more difficult, requiring adjustment of antidiabetic agents and insulin doses. The health team responsible for the follow-up of these patients should be vigilant and prepared to make such changes; however, unfortunately, there are few guidelines addressing the nuances of the management of this specific population.

Management of diabetes mellitus in individuals with chronic kidney disease: therapeutic perspectives and glycemic control

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the therapeutic options for diabetes treatment and their potential side effects, in addition to analyzing the risks and benefits of tight glycemic control in patients with diabetic kidney disease. For this review, a search was performed using several pre-defined keyword combinations and their equivalents: “diabetes kidney disease” and “renal failure” in combination with “diabetes treatment” and “oral antidiabetic drugs” or “oral hypoglycemic agents.” The search was performed in PubMed, Endocrine Abstracts and the Cochrane Library from January 1980 up to January 2015. Diabetes treatment in patients with diabetic kidney disease is challenging, in part because of progression of renal failure-related changes in insulin signaling, glucose transport and metabolism, favoring both hyperglycemic peaks and hypoglycemia. Additionally, the decline in renal function impairs the clearance and metabolism of antidiabetic agents and insulin, frequently requiring reassessment of prescriptions. The management of hyperglycemia in patients with diabetic kidney disease is even more difficult, requiring adjustment of antidiabetic agents and insulin doses. The health team responsible for the follow-up of these patients should be vigilant and prepared to make such changes; however, unfortunately, there are few guidelines addressing the nuances of the management of this specific population.

Hipotireoidismo primário simulando volumoso macroadenoma hipofisário / Primary hypothyroidism mimicking pituitary macroadenoma

Mulher de 21 anos apresenta história de 2 anos de irregularidade menstrual, com períodos de amenorréia de até 8 meses e ganho ponderal e há 1 ano galactorréia e cefaléia holocraniana. Exames da ocasião: TSH: 1192 mUI/ml (0,27-4,2); T4T:1,0 mg/dl (4,4-11,4) ; T3T: 0,41 ng/ml (0,7-2,1); prolactina: 69,2 ng/ml (3-20). Em serviço de endocrinologia foi confirmado quadro de mixedema acompanhado de galactorréia. Ressonância magnética (RM) de hipotálamo-hipófise mostrou lesão expansiva intra e supra selar com 1,9 x 1,4 x 1,9 cm nos seus maiores diâmetros, determinando compressão e desvio do quiasma óptico. Diante da possibilidade de hiperplasia das células produtoras de TSH, optamos por iniciar o tratamento do hipotireoidismo com levotiroxina. Após 2 meses de tratamento e normalização dos níveis séricos dos hormônios tireoidianos e do TSH, nova RM mostrou hipófise de tamanho normal. A regressão do volume hipofisário após terapia com levotiroxina confirmou a hipótese diagnóstica de hiperplasia hipofisária decorrente do hipotireoidismo primário. Nossos achados reforçam a importância da avaliação dos hormônios tireoideanos e TSH na investigação de aumento de volume hipofisário prevenindo uma cirurgia desnecessária.

[Primary hypothyroidism mimicking pituitary macroadenoma]. / Hipotireoidismo primário simulando volumoso macroadenoma hipofisário.

A 21-year-old woman complaining of 8-month amenorrhea associated to weight gain, galactorrhea and frequent headaches, presented for clinical evaluation; her laboratory tests were: TSH: 1192 mUI/ml (0.27-4.2); TT4: 1.0 microg/dl (4.4-11.4 l); TT3: 0.41 ng/ml (0.7-2.1); prolactin: 69.2 ng/ml (3-20) and a diagnosis of myxedema associated to galactorrhea was made. A hypothalamic-pituitary magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed a suprasellar and intrasellar mass lesion of 1.9 x 1.4 x 1.9 cm, determining compression and deviation of the optic chiasm. Due to the possibility of hyperplasia of the TSH-producing cells, treatment of hypothyroidism was initiated with levothyroxine. Two months later, upon normalization of thyroid hormones and TSH levels, a second MRI showed an anatomically normal pituitary gland. Regression of the pituitary mass after treatment with levothyroxine confirmed the hypothesis of pituitary hyperplasia secondary to primary hypothyroidism. Our findings support the importance of determining thyroid function tests during the investigation of pituitary masses and thus avoiding an unnecessary surgery.