Perceived Physical Health and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy vs Supportive Psychotherapy Outcomes in Adults With Late-Life Depression: A Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: Physical diseases co-occur with late-life depression (LLD). The influence of physical diseases and the subjective perception of physical health (PPH) on treatment outcome in LLD, however, is not well understood. Objective: To assess the association of physical diseases and PPH with the outcomes of 2 different types of psychotherapy in LLD. Design, Setting, and Participants: This post hoc secondary analysis of a multicenter, observer-blinded, controlled, parallel-group randomized clinical trial assessed participants 60 years or older with moderate to severe depression recruited at 7 psychiatric-psychotherapeutic outpatient trial sites in Germany from October 1, 2018, to November 11, 2020. Data analysis was performed from April 1 to October 31, 2023. Interventions: Patients received LLD-specific cognitive behavioral therapy (LLD-CBT) or supportive unspecific intervention (SUI). Main Outcomes and Measures: Depression severity, response, and remission were measured during treatment and at 6-month follow-up by the change in the 30-item Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) score. Physical health and PPH were assessed by the number of physical diseases, Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI), and the World Health Organization Quality of Life Brief Version physical health subscale. Results: A total of 251 patients were randomized to LLD-CBT (n = 126) or SUI (n = 125), of whom 229 (mean [SD] age, 70.2 [7.1] years; 151 [66%] female) were included in the intention-to-treat analysis. Patients with low and moderate PPH at baseline had significantly less reduction in the GDS score across both treatment groups than patients with high PPH (estimated marginal mean difference [EMMD], 2.67; 95% CI, 0.37-4.97; P = .02 for low PPH and EMMD, 1.82; 95% CI, 0.22-3.42; P = .03 for moderate vs high PPH). Higher PPH at baseline was associated with higher likelihood of response (odds ratio [OR], 1.04; 95% CI, 1.00-1.06; P = .009) and remission at the end of treatment (OR, 1.04; 95% CI, 1.02-1.08; P = .002) and response (OR, 1.05; 95% CI, 1.02-1.08; P < .001) and remission at follow-up (OR, 1.06; 95% CI, 1.03-1.10; P < .001) across both treatment groups. However, a significant interaction of PPH with treatment group was observed with low PPH at baseline being associated with significantly larger reduction in GDS scores in SUI compared with LLD-CBT at the end of treatment (EMMD, -6.48; 95% CI, -11.31 to -1.64; P = .009) and follow-up (EMMD, -6.49; 95% CI, -11.51 to -1.47; P = .01). In contrast, patients with high PPH at baseline had a significantly greater reduction in GDS scores in LLD-CBT compared with SUI at all time points (week 5: EMMD, -4.08; 95% CI, -6.49 to -1.67; P = .001; end-of-treatment: EMMD, -3.67; 95% CI, -6.72 to -0.61; P = .02; and follow-up: EMMD, -3.57; 95% CI, -6.63 to -0.51; P = .02). The number of physical diseases or CCI at baseline did not have an effect on the change in GDS score, response, or remission, neither across both groups nor within either group. Conclusions and Relevance: In this secondary analysis of a randomized clinical trial, subjective PPH was associated with treatment outcome, response, and remission in psychotherapy of LLD. Patients with LLD responded differently to LLD-CBT and SUI, depending on their baseline PPH score. Treatment approaches for patients with LLD should address PPH in personalized interventions. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03735576; Deutsches Register Klinischer Studien Identifier: DRKS00013769.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Late-Life Depression (CBTlate): Results of a Multicenter, Randomized, Observer-Blinded, Controlled Trial.

INTRODUCTION: Different psychotherapeutic interventions for late-life depression (LLD) have been proposed, but their evaluation in large, multicenter trials is rare. OBJECTIVE: The present study evaluated the efficacy of a specific cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for LLD (LLD-CBT) in comparison with a supportive unspecific intervention (SUI), both administered in a specialist psychiatric outpatient setting. METHODS: In this randomized, controlled, parallel group trial, we recruited participants (≥60 years) with moderate to severe depression at 7 trial sites in Germany. Participants were randomly assigned to the LLD-CBT or SUI group. The primary outcome was depression severity at the end of treatment measured by change on the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS). Secondary outcomes included change in observer-rated depression, anxiety, sleep ratings, and quality of life throughout the treatment phase and at 6-month follow-up. RESULTS: Between October 1, 2018, and November 11, 2020, we randomly assigned 251 patients to either LLD-CBT (n = 126) or SUI (n = 125), of whom 229 provided primary-outcome data. There was no significant between-group difference in the change in GDS scores at the end of treatment (estimated marginal mean difference: -1.01 [95% CI: -2.88 to 0.86]; p = 0.287). Secondary analyses showed significant improvements in several outcomes after 8 weeks and at follow-up in both treatment arms. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that LLD-specific CBT and a supportive unspecific treatment both provide clinical benefit in patients with moderate to severe LLD without evidence for superiority of LLD-CBT.

Evidence and expert consensus based German guidelines for the use of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in depression.

INTRODUCTION: Non-invasive brain stimulation techniques such as repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) offer a promising alternative to psychotherapeutic and pharmacological treatments for depression. This paper aims to present a practical guide for its clinical implementation based on evidence from the literature as well as on the experience of a group of leading German experts in the field. METHODS: The current evidence base for the use of rTMS in depression was examined via review of the literature. From the evidence and from clinical experience, recommendations for the use of rTMS in clinical practice were derived. All members of the of the German Society for Brain Stimulation in Psychiatry and all members of the sections Clinical Brain Stimulation and Experimental Brain Stimulation of the German Society for Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, Psychosomatics and Mental Health were invited to participate in a poll on whether they consent with the recommendations. FINDINGS: Among rTMS experts, a high consensus rate could be identified for clinical practice concerning the setting and the technical parameters of rTMS treatment in depression, indications and contra-indications, the relation of rTMS to other antidepressive treatment modalities and the frequency and management of side effects.

Personality changes with subcallosal cingulate deep brain stimulation in patients with treatment-resistant depression.

BACKGROUND: Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a promising investigational approach for treatment-resistant depression. However, reports suggesting changes in personality with DBS for movement disorders have raised clinical and ethical concerns. We prospectively examined changes in personality dimensions and antidepressant response to subcallosal cingulate (SCC)-DBS for treatment-resistant depression. METHODS: Twenty-two patients with treatment-resistant depression underwent SCC-DBS. We used the NEO Five-Factor Inventory for personality assessment at baseline and every 3 months until 15 months post-DBS. We assessed depression severity monthly using the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale. RESULTS: We found a significant decrease in neuroticism (p = 0.002) and an increase in extraversion (p = 0.001) over time, showing a change toward normative data. Improvement on the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale was correlated with decreases in neuroticism at 6 months (p = 0.001) and 12 months (p < 0.001), and with an increase in extraversion at 12 months (p = 0.01). Changes on the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale over time had a significant covariate effect on neuroticism (p < 0.001) and extraversion (p = 0.001). Baseline openness and agreeableness predicted response to DBS at 6 (p = 0.006) and 12 months (p = 0.004), respectively. LIMITATIONS: Limitations included a small sample size, a lack of sham control and the use of subjective personality evaluation. CONCLUSION: We observed positive personality changes following SCC-DBS, with reduced neuroticism and increased extraversion related to clinical improvement in depression, suggesting a state effect. As well, pretreatment levels of openness and agreeableness may have predicted subsequent response to DBS. The NEO Five-Factor Inventory assessment may have a role in clinical decision-making and prognostic evaluation in patients with treatment-resistant depression who undergo SCC-DBS.

Effects of magnetic seizure therapy on anterograde and retrograde amnesia in treatment-resistant depression.

BACKGROUND: Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is the gold standard for treatment-resistant depression (TRD). However, cognitive side effects, mainly anterograde and retrograde amnesia, frequently occur. Magnetic seizure therapy (MST) is tested using more focal seizure induction. However, the suggestion MST may be more beneficial than ECT because it causes fewer amnesia have not yet been comprehensively investigated using common neuropsychological testing specifically for ECT. We aimed to examine whether MST causes anterograde and retrograde amnesia. METHODS: Ten patients with TRD were treated with MST (8.9 [2] treatments) at 100% machine output, a frequency of 100 Hz and 657.4 (62) pulses per train. The short form of the Autobiographical Memory Inventory was administered to test retrograde amnesia. Furthermore, an extended neuropsychological test battery, including verbal and nonverbal recall as well as recognition tasks, was used. RESULTS: We observed changes in retrograde amnesia, although they were not clinically relevant (mean: -0.42 ± 0.14). Furthermore, no anterograde amnesia as well as no effects on global cognitive status, attention, language, and executive functions after MST were measured. CONCLUSIONS: The cognitive safety and efficacy of MST in patients with TRD were indicated. However, the main limitations of the present study were the small sample and as a consequence, the low statistical power to detect changes after treatment. Therefore, our findings require replication in further studies. In addition, a direct comparison between MST and ECT in a larger sample should be performed before MST can be discussed as an alternative treatment approach to ECT in clinical practice.

Cognitive behavioural therapy for the treatment of late life depression: study protocol of a multicentre, randomized, observer-blinded, controlled trial (CBTlate).

BACKGROUND: Late-life depression (LLD) is one of the most prevalent mental disorders in old age. It is associated with various adverse outcomes and frequent use of health care services thereby remaining a serious public health concern. Compared with depression in early adulthood, most treatment options of LLD are less effective. Psychotherapy may be particularly beneficial for LLD due to specific psychological conditions in old age and a low risk of side effects. Although cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is highly established and effective in depression in young and mid-life there is only a limited number of small studies on CBT in LLD. An LLD-specific CBT has not yet been compared to an active, but unspecific supportive psychological intervention in a multicentre trial. METHODS: Here we present the design of the CBTlate trial, which is a multicentre, randomized, observer-blinded, active-controlled, parallel group trial. CBTlate aims at including 248 patients with LLD of both genders at 7 sites in Germany. The purpose of the study is to test the hypothesis that a 15-session individually-delivered CBT specific for LLD is of superior efficacy in reducing symptoms of depression in comparison with a supportive unspecific intervention (SUI) of the same quantity. The intervention includes 8 weeks of individual treatment sessions twice per week and a follow-up period of 6 months after randomization. The primary end point is the severity of depression at the end of treatment measured by the self-rated 30-item Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS). Secondary endpoints include depressive symptoms at week 5 and at follow-up (6 months after randomization). Additional secondary endpoints include the change of depressive symptoms assessed with a clinician-rating-scale and a patient reported outcome instrument for major depressive disorder, anxiety symptoms, sleep, cognition, quality of life, and overall health status from baseline to end-of treatment and to end of follow-up. Add-on protocols include MRI and the collection of blood samples. DISCUSSION: This study is the first multicentre trial of a specific CBT intervention for LLD compared to an unspecific supportive psychological intervention administered in a specialist setting. It has important implications for developing and implementing efficient psychotherapeutic strategies for LLD and may be a significant step to broaden treatment options for people suffering from LLD. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03735576, registered on 24 October 2018); DRKS (DRKS00013769, registered on 28 June 2018).

Frontal white matter architecture predicts efficacy of deep brain stimulation in major depression.

Major depression is a frequent and severe disorder, with a combination of psycho- and pharmacotherapy most patients can be treated. However, ~20% of all patients suffering from major depressive disorder remain treatment resistant; a subgroup might be treated with deep brain stimulation (DBS). We present two trials of DBS to the superolateral medial forebrain bundle (slMFB DBS; FORESEE I and II). The goal was to identify informed features that allow to predict treatment response. Data from N = 24 patients were analyzed. Preoperative imaging including anatomical sequences (T1 and T2) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) magnetic resonance imaging sequences were used together with postoperative helical CT scans (for DBS electrode position). Pathway activation modeling (PAM) as well as preoperative structural imaging and morphometry was used to understand the response behavior of patients (MADRS). A left fronto-polar and partly orbitofrontal region was identified that showed increased volume in preoperative anatomical scans. Further statistical analysis shows that the volume of this "HUB-region" is predictive for later MADRS response from DBS. The HUB region connects to typical fiber pathways that have been addressed before in therapeutic DBS in major depression. Left frontal volume growth might indicate intrinsic activity upon disconnection form the main emotional network. The results are significant since for the first time we found an informed feature that might allow to identify and phenotype future responders for slMFB DBS. This is a clear step into the direction of personalized treatments.

Superolateral medial forebrain bundle deep brain stimulation in major depression: a gateway trial.

Short- and long-term antidepressant effects of deep brain stimulation (DBS) in treatment-resistant depression (TRD) have been demonstrated for several brain targets in open-label studies. For two stimulation targets, pivotal randomized trials have been conducted; both failed a futility analysis. We assessed efficacy and safety of DBS of the supero-lateral branch of the medial forebrain bundle (slMFB) in a small Phase I clinical study with a randomized-controlled onset of stimulation in order to obtain data for the planning of a large RCT. Sixteen patients suffering from TRD received DBS of the slMFB and were randomized to sham or real stimulation for the duration of 2 months after implantation. Primary outcome measure was mean reduction in Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) during 12 months of DBS (timeline analysis). Secondary outcomes were the difference in several clinical measures between sham and real stimulation at 8 weeks and during stimulation phases. MADRS ratings decreased significantly from 29.6 (SD +/- 4) at baseline to 12.9 (SD +/- 9) during 12 months of DBS (mean MADRS, n = 16). All patients reached the response criterion, most patients (n = 10) responded within a week; 50% of patients were classified as remitters after 1 year of stimulation. The most frequent side effect was transient strabismus. Both groups (active/sham) demonstrated an antidepressant micro-lesioning effect but patients had an additional antidepressant effect after initiation of stimulation. Both rapid onset and stability of the antidepressant effects of slMFB-DBS were demonstrated as in our previous pilot study. Given recent experiences from pivotal trials in DBS for MDD, we believe that slow, careful, and adaptive study development is germane. After our exploratory study and a large-scale study, we conducted this gateway trial in order to better inform planning of the latter. Important aspects for the planning of RCTs in the field of DBS for severe and chronic diseases are discussed including meaningful phases of intra-individual and between-group comparisons and timeline instead of single endpoint analyses.

Vagus Nerve Stimulation As an Adjunctive Neurostimulation Tool in Treatment-resistant Depression.

Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is an approved neurostimulation therapy. The purpose of the method is to treat patients with therapy-resistant depression (TRD). VNS exhibits antidepressive and stabilizing effects. This method is particularly useful as a long-term treatment, in which up to two-thirds of patients respond. The vagus nerve stimulator is positioned on the left vagus nerve during a surgical procedure and is activated telemetrically by a wand connected to a handheld computerized device. The treating physician can perform various adjustments of the vagus nerve stimulator during in-office visits (e.g., by modifying stimulation intensity or stimulation frequency) to achieve maximum therapeutic effects with low side effects. Set-up of the device usually takes several months. Typical side effects include wound infection, temporary salivation, coughing, paralysis of the vocal cords, bradycardia, or even asystole. The patient can stop the VNS by placing a magnet over the generator. The current protocol describes delivery of the specific stimulation tool and methods for adjusting the tuning parameters to achieve the best remission rates in patients with TRD.

Clinical Predictors of Response to Magnetic Seizure Therapy in Depression: A Preliminary Report.

OBJECTIVES: Magnetic seizure therapy (MST) is a novel convulsive brain stimulation method in clinical testing, which is used as an alternative for electroconvulsive therapy in patients with treatment-resistant depression (TRD). Preliminary studies have suggested that MST leads to fewer cognitive adverse effects than electroconvulsive therapy but has similar efficacy. However, the clinical predictors of response to MST have not been evaluated yet. This study aimed to investigate whether these predictors can be identified in patients with TRD. METHODS: Thirty-eight patients with TRD were included. As clinical predictors for treatment response, we used the diagnosis, sex, age, family history, and severity of depression, as well as the melancholic, psychotic, anxiety, and atypical depression symptoms. A response was defined as an improvement higher than 50% on the 28-item Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression. The binary logistic regression, stepwise linear regression, and effect sizes were calculated. RESULTS: We found that 68.4% of the patients responded to MST. The responders had significantly fewer previous depressive episodes, less severe depression, and fewer melancholic (anhedonia) and anxiety symptoms than the nonresponders. In addition, responders were more likely to have a positive family history of depression than nonresponders. In particular, the number of previous episodes and a family history of depression were significant predictors of the response to MST. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrate that the chronicity, severity, and family history of depression, as well as the presence of melancholic and anxiety symptoms, can serve as clinical predictors of the response to MST. Further research with a larger sample size will be required to verify these preliminary findings.

Tractography-assisted deep brain stimulation of the superolateral branch of the medial forebrain bundle (slMFB DBS) in major depression.

Background: Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the superolateral branch of the medial forebrain bundle (slMFB) emerges as a - yet experimental - treatment for major depressive disorder (MDD) and other treatment refractory psychiatric diseases. First experiences have been reported from two open label pilot trials in major depression (MDD) and long-term effectiveness for MDD (50 months) has been reported. Objective: To give a detailed description of the surgical technique for DBS of the superolateral branch of the medial forebrain bundle (slMFB) in MDD. Methods: Surgical experience from bilateral implantation procedures in n = 24 patients with MDD is reported. The detailed procedure of tractography-assisted targeting together with detailed electrophysiology in 144 trajectories in the target region (recording and stimulation) is described. Achieved electrode positions were evaluated based on postoperative helical CT and fused to preoperative high resolution anatomical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI; Philips Medical Systems, Best, Netherlands), including the pre-operative diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) tractographic information (StealthViz DTI, Medtronic, USA; Framelink 5.0, Medtronic, USA). Midcommissural point (MCP) coordinates of effective contact (EC) location, together with angles of entry into the target region were evaluated. To investigate incidental stimulation of surrounding nuclei (subthalamic nucleus, STN; substantia nigra, SNr; and red nucleus, RN) as a possible mechanism, a therapeutic triangle (TT) was defined, located between these structures (based on MRI criteria in T2) and evaluated with respect to EC locations. Results: Bilateral slMFB DBS was performed in all patients. We identified an electrophysiological environment (defined by autonomic reaction, passive microelectrode recording, acute effects and oculomotor effects) that helps to identify the proper target site on the operation table. Postoperative MCP-evaluation of effective contacts (EC) shows a significant variability with respect to localization. Evaluation of the TT shows that responders will typically have their active contacts inside the triangle and that surrounding nuclei (STN, SNr, RN) are not directly hit by EC, indicating a predominant white matter stimulation. The individual EC position within the triangle cannot be predicted and is based on individual slMFB (tractography) geometry. There was one intracranial bleeding (FORESEE I study) during a first implantation attempt in a patient who later received full bilateral implantation. Typical oculomotor side effects are idiosyncratic for the target region and at inferior contacts. Conclusion: The detailed surgical procedure of slMFB DBS implantation has not been described before. The slMFB emerges as an interesting region for the treatment of major depression (and other psychiatric diseases) with DBS. So far it has only been successfully researched in open label clinical case series and in 15 patients published. Stimulation probably achieves its effect through direct white-matter modulation of slMFB fibers. The surgical implantation comprises a standardized protocol combining tractographic imaging based on DTI, targeting and electrophysiological evaluation of the target region. To this end, slMFB DBS surgery is in technical aspects comparable to typical movement disorder surgery. In our view, slMFB DBS should only be performed under tractographic assistance.

Deep brain stimulation of the supero-lateral branch of the medial forebrain bundle does not lead to changes in personality in patients suffering from severe depression.

BACKGROUND: Reports of changes in patients' social behavior during deep brain stimulation (DBS) raised the question whether DBS induces changes in personality. This study explored if (1) DBS is associated with changes in personality in patients suffering from treatment-resistant depression (TRD), (2) how personality dimensions and depression are associated, and (3) if TRD patients' self-ratings of personality are valid. METHODS: TRD patients were assessed before DBS (n = 30), 6 months (t2, n = 21), 2 (t3, n = 17) and 5 years (t4, n = 11) after the initiation of DBS of the supero-lateral branch of the medial forebrain bundle (slMFB-DBS). Personality was measured with the NEO-Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI), depression severity with Hamilton (HDRS), and Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS). RESULTS: Personality dimensions did not change with slMFB-DBS compared with baseline. Extraversion was negatively correlated with HDRS28 (r = -0.48, p < 0.05) and MADRS (r = -0.45, p < 0.05) at t2. Inter-rater reliability was high for the NEO-FFI at baseline (Cronbach's α = 0.74) and at t4 (α = 0.65). Extraversion [t(29) = -5.20; p < 0.001] and openness to experience [t(29) = -6.96; p < 0.001] differed statistically significant from the normative sample, and did not predict the antidepressant response. CONCLUSIONS: slMFB-DBS was not associated with a change in personality. The severity of depression was associated with extraversion. Personality of TRD patients differed from the healthy population and did not change with response, indicating a possible scar effect. Self-ratings of personality seem valid to assess personality during TRD.

Degree of Postictal Suppression Depends on Seizure Induction Time in Magnetic Seizure Therapy and Electroconvulsive Therapy.

OBJECTIVES: Anesthesia is required for both magnetic seizure therapy (MST) and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), although it has anticonvulsant properties. In this case, bispectral index (BIS) monitoring, a specific electroencephalogram-derived monitoring, can be used to find the optimal seizure induction time during anesthesia to elicit adequate seizures. A measurement of seizure adequacy in electroencephalogram is the postictal suppression. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of seizure induction time on the degree of postictal suppression by comparing BIS versus no-BIS monitoring in MST and ECT. METHODS: Twenty patients with treatment-resistant depression were randomly assigned to either MST or ECT. Each patient underwent 3 treatments with the determination of seizure induction time by defined prestimulation BIS (BIS condition) and 3 treatments with determination of seizure induction time by controlled clinical trial protocol (no-BIS condition). Statistical analysis was calculated by repeated-measures analysis of variance. RESULTS: The degree of postictal suppression was more pronounced in both MST and ECT, with BIS monitoring. In this connection, no differences between MST and ECT were found. Seizure induction time was significantly later in the BIS condition (181.3 ± 6 seconds) compared with the no-BIS condition (114.3 ± 12 seconds) (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Adequacy of seizures, in the form of the degree of postictal suppression, was superior by determining the seizure induction time with BIS in both MST and ECT. Further research is needed to investigate the correlation between the degree of postictal suppression and treatment response.

Deep brain stimulation to the medial forebrain bundle for depression- long-term outcomes and a novel data analysis strategy.

BACKGROUND: Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the supero-lateral branch of the medial forebrain bundle (slMFB) in treatment-resistant depression (TRD) is associated with acute antidepressant effects. OBJECTIVE: Long-term clinical effects including changes in quality of life, side effects and cognition as well as long-term data covering four years are assessed. METHODS: Eight TRD patients were treated with DBS bilateral to the slMFB. Primary outcome measure was a 50% reduction in Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) (response) and remission (MADRS <10) at 12 months compared to baseline. Secondary measures were anxiety, general functioning, quality of life, safety and cognition assessed for 4 years. Data is reported as conventional endpoint-analysis and as area under the curve (AUC) timeline analysis. RESULTS: Six of eight patients (75%) were responders at 12 months, four patients reached remission. Long-term results revealed a stable effect up to four years. Antidepressant efficacy was also reflected in the global assessment of functioning. Main side effect was strabismus at higher stimulation currents. No change in cognition was identified. AUC analysis revealed a significant reduction in depression for 7/8 patients in most months. CONCLUSIONS: Long-term results of slMFB-DBS suggest acute and sustained antidepressant effect; timeline analysis may be an alternative method reflecting patient's overall gain throughout the study. Being able to induce a rapid and robust antidepressant effect even in a small, sample of TRD patients without significant psychiatric comorbidity, render the slMFB an attractive target for future studies.

Deep brain stimulation for bipolar disorder-review and outlook.

Research on deep brain stimulation (DBS) for treatment-resistant psychiatric disorders has established preliminary efficacy signals for treatment-resistant depression. There are only few studies on DBS that included patients suffering from bipolar disorder. This article gives an overview of these studies concerning DBS targets, antidepressant efficacy, and the occurrence of manic/hypomanic symptoms under stimulation. First, promising results show that all patients experienced significant improvement in depressive symptomatology. In a single case, hypomanic symptoms occurred, but they could be resolved by adjusting stimulation parameters. Furthermore, this article highlights important clinical differences between unipolar and bipolar depression that have to be considered throughout the course of treatment.

Walking away from depression-motor activity increases ratings of mood and incentive drive in patients with major depression.

Reduced motor activity is associated with depression. Lewinsohn's cognitive behavioural model of depression assumes a lack of positive experience due to a reduced level of activity as a key aspect of depression. The acute relationship between motor activity and mood as well as between motor activity and incentive drive (the motivation to engage in activities) is unknown. An augmentation of mood and incentive drive could precede or follow motor activity. We examined (1) whether motor activity would be correlated with the course of depression and (2) the temporal relationship between motor activity and acute changes in mood and incentive drive. Motor activity was measured with actigraphy in 12 patients with depression for one week. Severity of depression was assessed before and at the end of the study with depression rating scales. The patients reported mood and incentive drive once per hour. With lag sequential analysis, the temporal relationship between motor activity and mood and incentive drive was evaluated. Higher motor activity was associated with depression improvement. Motor activity had an acute association with mood and incentive drive, especially one hour after activity. The results support the Lewinsohn's model of depression and underline the impact of behavioural activation in antidepressant treatment.

Arachnophobia alleviated by subthalamic nucleus stimulation for Parkinson's disease.

We report on a Parkinson patient with motor fluctuations and dyskinesias in whom deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) not only improved motor symptoms but also pre-existing arachnophobia. Arachnophobia had been unchanged by the course of Parkinson's disease but rapidly improved with STN-DBS. Both, motor effects and the improvement of arachnophobia were stable during 2 years follow-up. To our knowledge this is the first report on STN stimulation effects on a specific phobia.

Update on Neuromodulation for Treatment-Resistant Depression.

About 30% of patients suffering from a major depressive disorder do not respond sufficiently to established pharmacological, psychotherapeutic, or somatic treatments. Advances in technology and emerging knowledge about the dysfunctional brain circuits underlying depression have led to the development of different neuromodulation techniques. The aim of the present review is to give an update on noninvasive techniques, such as electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), magnetic seizure therapy (MST), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and invasive techniques requiring brain surgery, such as vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) and deep brain stimulation (DBS). First, the clinical relevance for therapy-resistant depression, including the current level of evidence, are presented. Neuroethics is concerned with the ethical, legal and social policy implications of neuroscience. A second focus of the review is the application of fundamental ethical principles, such as patient autonomy, patient well-being and justice to neuromodulation therapies. Due to reduced availability and lacking long-term efficacy data, most patients with treatment-resistant depression face a trial-and-error approach to therapeutics. This contravenes the ethical criteria of patient autonomy and justice. In order to raise the level of evidence, financial support of long-term studies, including large samples and randomized control trials, are necessary.

Effects of electroconvulsive therapy and magnetic seizure therapy on acute memory retrieval.

OBJECTIVES: Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is currently the most effective treatment for severe depression. However, it is frequently associated with negative cognitive side effects. Magnetic seizure therapy (MST) depicts an alternative, although experimental, convulsive treatment for major depression. Initial results suggest comparable antidepressant effects accompanied by a better side effect profile. However, no studies up to now have addressed acute retrieval disruption after MST in comparison to ECT. Therefore, we intended to broaden insight into the side effect profile of MST compared to ECT by examining the disruption of acute verbal memory processes after treatment. METHODS: Twenty depressed patients were randomly assigned to either MST (10 patients) or ECT (10 patients) treatment. On 2 treatment days and 2 treatment-free days, the patients memorized words using a controlled learning paradigm derived from the Batchelder and Riefer storage retrieval model. Four hours after memorization, the patients were asked to retrieve words freely (delayed recall) and a second time with the help of an additional cue constructed out of a hypernymic category (cued recall). By comparing memory performance on treatment days to control days, treatment-induced memory disruption was evaluated. RESULTS: After ECT, delayed recall was disturbed, whereas after MST, it was not. However, this difference in performance was no longer apparent upon cue application (cued recall). CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that ECT-induced acute memory disruption measured by delayed recall is absent after MST, confirming its superior side effect profile. We hope that confirming advantages of MST over ECT will improve therapy options for patients with severe depression.