Isolation of cytomegalovirus and foamy virus from the drill monkey (Mandrillus leucophaeus) and prevalence of antibodies to these viruses amongst wild-born and captive-bred individuals.

Drill monkeys (Mandrillus leucophaeus) are an endangered species whose indigenous viral flora is largely unknown. We report here the isolation and characterization of both a cytomegalovirus (DrCMV) and a foamy virus (SFV-drl) from drill monkeys. Phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequence data placed the DrCMV within a primate CMV clade, and showed that SFV-drl was closely related to baboon foamy viruses. ELISA analysis demonstrated that DrCMV shared common epitopes with other primate CMVs but was distinct from human and baboon CMVs. ELISA testing of sera from wild-born and captive-bred drills indicated that the prevalence of antibodies reactive with these two viruses was 93.2% for DrCMV and 20.3% for SFV-drl.

Isolation and characterization of an endogenous cytomegalovirus (BaCMV) from baboons.

This report describes the isolation of CMV-like viruses from olive, yellow and chacma sub-species of baboons. The viruses were identified as CMVs by their characteristic growth properties in cell culture, virion morphology under the TEM, and antigenic cross-reactivity with other primate CMVs. The glycoprotein B gene homologue from an olive baboon CMV isolate (BaCMV OCOM4-37) was identified, cloned and sequenced. We present the sequence of this gene and by phylogenetic analysis demonstrate that BaCMV is in fact a cytomegalovirus, and is more closely related to rhesus CMV than to human CMV. An ELISA was developed to measure anti-BaCMV antibodies in baboon sera. Serological testing of colony-bred and wild-born baboons indicated that BaCMV is ubiquitous in all baboon populations, with >95% of adult baboons of all sub-species being infected.

Simian foamy virus infections in a baboon breeding colony.

The prevalence, transmission, and variation of simian foamy viruses (SFVs) in baboons was investigated. Over 95% of adult baboons in the breeding colony as well as recently imported adult animals had high titers of anti-SFV serum IgG. Maternal antibody was detectable in infants' serum up to 6 months of age. Approximately 30% of infants in breeding harems experienced SFV infections by 1 year of age. Shedding of SFV in oral secretions was common, with 13% of samples from normal adult animals and 35% from immunosuppressed animals containing infectious SFV. SFV was isolated from three baboon subspecies (olive, yellow, and chacma baboons) and sequences from both the pol and the LTR regions of the provirus were amplified by PCR and sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that all baboon isolates formed a single lineage distinct from SFVs of other African monkey species. Within the baboon SFV lineage, two distinct clades were apparent, which consisted of isolates from yellow and olive baboons and isolates from chacma baboons. Competition ELISAs indicated that, while SFV isolates of these two groups were very closely related, antigenic differences do exist between them. SFV isolates from a drill and a mandrill were distinct from baboon SFV isolates, both genetically and antigenically.

Primate cytomegaloviruses encode and express an IL-10-like protein.

An open reading frame (ORF) with homology to interleukin-10 (IL-10) has been identified in rhesus cytomegalovirus (RhCMV). The IL-10-like protein is generated from a multispliced, polyadenylated early gene transcript encompassing part of the corresponding UL111A ORF of human CMV (HCMV). Immunological analyses confirm expression of the IL-10-like protein both in tissue culture and in RhCMV-infected rhesus macaques. Conserved ORFs were subsequently identified in human, baboon, and African green monkey CMV, and a fully processed transcript has been mapped in fibroblasts infected with the Towne strain of HCMV. The conservation of this previously unrecognized ORF suggests that the protein may play an essential role in primate CMV persistence and pathogenesis.

Development of a competitive ELISA for detection of primates infected with monkey B virus (Herpesvirus simiae).

Two competitive ELISAs (C-ELISAs) are described that allow detection of antibodies against monkey B virus (BV, Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1). The assays utilize monoclonal antibodies (MABs) directed against the BV glycoprotein B (gB). Two of these MABs specifically recognize BV gB while a third MAB also reacts with the gB homologues of other primate alpha-herpesviruses (herpes simplexvirus-1, HSV-1: HSV-2; simian agent-8, SA8; and Herpesvirus papio-2, HVP2). A C-ELISA using the single cross-reactive MAB 3E8 allowed detection of host antibodies against HSV-1, HSV-2, SA8, HVP2 or BV, thus proving to be a sensitive assay for the detection of infection by any of these primate alpha-herpesviruses. The C-ELISA using BV-specific MABs was less sensitive but did allow some discrimination between infection by BV versus other alpha-herpesviruses. It was also shown that a C-ELISA using HVP2 as antigen and the cross-reactive MAB 3E8 was as sensitive for detection of BV antibody in macaque sera as an assay employing BV antigen. This test format allows detection of BV-infected primates without the biohazards associated with preparation and use of BV antigen.

Prevalence of Herpesvirus papio 2 in baboons and identification of immunogenic viral polypeptides.

The prevalence of Herpesvirus papio 2 (HVP2) in several groups of captive and wild-caught baboons was determined by detection of anti-HVP2 antibodies in 133 sera of adult baboons. Over 90% of newly imported (wild-caught) adult olive baboons (Papio anubis) from Kenya and chacma baboons (P. ursinus) from South Africa were found to have anti-HVP2 titers. Similarly, approximately 85% of captive breeding colony baboons (P. anubis and P. cynocephalus) were seropositive for HVP2. Infected animals were generally easily identifiable by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay because anti-HVP2 IgG titers in immune animals were usually high (16,000 to 64,000). There was little variation in the relative reactivity patterns of individual HVP2-immune sera when tested against herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2, monkey B virus, H. cercopithecus 2, and HVP2, or against different HVP2 strains. Also, differences were not detected between reactivity of olive and chacma baboon immune sera. Analysis of the polypeptide specificity of immune sera by western blot identified four viral antigens that were consistent targets of immune sera. These antigens were the gB glycoprotein, a pair of unidentified glycoproteins of 80 to 100 kDa, the gD glycoprotein, and a series of smaller capsid proteins. Additional viral proteins were variably recognized by individual immune sera. The results of this study indicate that HVP2 is a common infection of baboons; there is little antigenic variation among HVP2 strains; and there are several HVP2 antigens that represent consistent targets of the anti-HVP2 immune response of baboons.

Genetic and functional complementation of the HSV1 UL27 gene and gB glycoprotein by simian alpha-herpesvirus homologs.

Utilizing co-transfection of DNA from glycoprotein gB- strain of HSV1 and cloned fragments of several simian alpha-herpesviruses containing the UL26, UL27 (gB glycoprotein), and UL28 gene homologs, replication-competent recombinant viruses were produced. Genetic analysis of one HSV1/SA8 recombinant (HSV1/SgB) demonstrated the presence of SA8 DNA comprising the entire UL27 (gB) gene and parts of the UL28 and UL26 ORFs in an otherwise HSV1 genome. The recombinant was shown to express the SA8 gB and p40 proteins (UL27 & UL26.5 gene products, respectively); all other proteins were indistinguishable from those of HSV1. The recombinant behaved like SA8 in gB-specific virus neutralization and cell surface antibody binding assays, while plaque morphology and replication kinetics were very similar to HSV1. Despite its overwhelming HSV1 genetic constitution, the recombinant displayed a pathogenic phenotype in mice very different from the parental HSV1. While HSV1 produced corneal disease in ocularly infected mice and readily spread to the nervous system. HSV1/SgB was markedly impaired in both respects. These results demonstrate the functional equivalency of the cercopithecine monkey virus gB glycoproteins and genes (including transcriptional regulatory elements) in HSV1, the functional nature of HSV1/SA8 chimeric UL28 and UL26 genes/proteins, and that UL28, gB and/or p40 proteins may effect the pathogenicity of HSV1.

Characterization of virus-specific and cross-reactive monoclonal antibodies to Herpesvirus simiae (B virus).

A panel of 13 monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) was produced that detect B virus (BV) proteins. Several of these MAbs were highly specific for BV, while the remainder cross-reacted in varying degrees with the other primate alphaherpesviruses. Utilizing western blot and radioimmunoprecipitation analysis, the MAbs were found to detect at least four distinct BV-infected cell antigens, several of which were composed of multiple polypeptides. One target antigen has been identified as the BV glycoprotein B (gB) homologue and was recognized by both virus-specific and cross-reactive MAbs. Although gB is an essential protein, none of the anti-gB MAbs neutralized infectious virus.

Cleavage of the bovine herpesvirus glycoprotein B is not essential for its function.

Herpes simplex virus glycoprotein B (HSVgB) and its bovine herpesvirus homologue (BHVgB) share similar primary structures. These glycoproteins are present in the envelope of the virion and are believed to initiate infection by fusing the virus envelope with a host cell membrane. BHVgB, like the membrane-fusing glycoproteins of most enveloped viruses, is normally cleaved and is present as a disulphide-linked complex in the virus envelope and host cell membranes. HSVgB, however, remains uncleaved, presumably because it lacks a similar protease recognition sequence. To determine whether the cleavage of BHVgB is essential for its role in initiating infection, we altered the coding sequence of this glycoprotein by removing the protease cleavage site and making this region similar to that of HSVgB. The mutant BHVgB gene was expressed by an HSV recombinant virus in mouse L cells and produced an uncleaved BHVgB. The uncleaved BHVgB could complement the function of HSVgB which had been neutralized by monoclonal antibody H233. When expressed in mouse L cells, the uncleaved mutant BHVgB retained its ability to fuse membranes.

Construction of herpes simplex viruses that are pseudodiploid for the glycoprotein B gene: a strategy for studying the function of an essential herpesvirus gene.

The primary structure of glycoprotein B (gB) is conserved strongly among many members of the Herpesviridae, including some that differ vastly in their natural properties. To determine whether the structural similarity between the gBs of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and bovine herpesvirus type 1 (BHV-1) was reflected in functional homology, we constructed pseudodiploid HSV-1 virions which, in addition to their own gene encoding gB, also contained a gene for encoding BHV-1 gB. Two kinds of pseudodiploid viruses were constructed. In one, the coding sequences of the BHV-1 gB gene were linked to the 5' flanking sequences of the HSV-1 thymidine kinase (TK) gene. In the other, the entire BHV-1 gB gene, including its own flanking sequences, was introduced into the TK gene. In cells infected with the viruses both HSV-1 and BHV-1 gB were made but they could be distinguished immunologically by monoclonal antibodies. Both glycoproteins were inserted into cellular and virion membranes but did not form oligomers with each other. A monoclonal antibody that binds to HSV-1 gB but not BHV-1 gB neutralized the parental HSV-1 and a revertant pseudodiploid virus from which the gene encoding BHV-1 gB had been excised, but was significantly less efficient at neutralizing the pseudodiploid viruses. This suggests that the BHV-1 homologue can complement the HSV-1 gB functions required for infectivity.