SIRT6 inhibitors with salicylate-like structure show immunosuppressive and chemosensitizing effects.

The NAD+-dependent deacetylase SIRT6 is an emerging cancer drug target, whose inhibition sensitizes cancer cells to chemo-radiotherapy and has pro-differentiating effects. Here we report on the identification of novel SIRT6 inhibitors with a salicylate-based structure. The new SIRT6 inhibitors show improved potency and specificity compared to the hit inhibitor identified in an in silico compound screen. As predicted based on SIRT6 biological roles, the new leads increase histone 3 lysine 9 acetylation and glucose uptake in cultured cells, while blocking TNF-α production and T lymphocyte proliferation. Notably, the new SIRT6 inhibitors effectively sensitize pancreatic cancer cells to gemcitabine. Finally, studies of compound fingerprinting and pharmacokinetics defined the drug-like properties of one of the new SIRT6 inhibitors, potentially allowing for subsequent in vivo proof-of-concept studies. In conclusion, new SIRT6 inhibitors with a salicylate-like structure were identified, which are active in cells and could potentially find applications in disease conditions, including cancer and immune-mediated disorders.

Discovery of a new selective inhibitor of A Disintegrin And Metalloprotease 10 (ADAM-10) able to reduce the shedding of NKG2D ligands in Hodgkin's lymphoma cell models.

Hodgkin's lymphoma (HL) is the most common malignant lymphoma in young adults in the western world. This disease is characterized by an overexpression of ADAM-10 with increased release of NKG2D ligands, involved in an impaired immune response against tumor cells. We designed and synthesized two new ADAM-10 selective inhibitors, 2 and 3 based on previously published ADAM-17 selective inhibitor 1. The most promising compound was the thiazolidine derivative 3, with nanomolar activity for ADAM-10, high selectivity over ADAM-17 and MMPs and good efficacy in reducing the shedding of NKG2D ligands (MIC-B and ULBP3) in three different HL cell lines at non-toxic doses. Molecular modeling studies were used to drive the design and X-ray crystallography studies were carried out to explain the selectivity of 3 for ADAM-10 over MMPs.

Sirt6 regulates dendritic cell differentiation, maturation, and function.

Dendritic cells (DCs) are antigen-presenting cells that critically influence decisions about immune activation or tolerance. Impaired DC function is at the core of common chronic disorders and contributes to reduce immunocompetence during aging. Knowledge on the mechanisms regulating DC generation and function is necessary to understand the immune system and to prevent disease and immunosenescence. Here we show that the sirtuin Sirt6, which was previously linked to healthspan promotion, stimulates the development of myeloid, conventional DCs (cDCs). Sirt6-knockout (Sirt6KO) mice exhibit low frequencies of bone marrow cDC precursors and low yields of bone marrow-derived cDCs compared to wild-type (WT) animals. Sirt6KO cDCs express lower levels of class II MHC, of costimulatory molecules, and of the chemokine receptor CCR7, and are less immunostimulatory compared to WT cDCs. Similar effects in terms of differentiation and immunostimulatory capacity were observed in human monocyte-derived DCs in response to SIRT6 inhibition. Finally, while Sirt6KO cDCs show an overall reduction in their ability to produce IL-12, TNF-α and IL-6 secretion varies dependent on the stimulus, being reduced in response to CpG, but increased in response to other Toll-like receptor ligands. In conclusion, Sirt6 plays a crucial role in cDC differentiation and function and reduced Sirt6 activity may contribute to immunosenescence.

Analysis of in vitro ADCC and clinical response to trastuzumab: possible relevance of FcγRIIIA/FcγRIIA gene polymorphisms and HER-2 expression levels on breast cancer cell lines.

BACKGROUND: Trastuzumab is a humanized monoclonal antibody (mAb) currently used for the treatment of breast cancer (BC) patients with HER-2 overexpressing tumor subtype. Previous data reported the involvement of FcγRIIIA/IIA gene polymorphisms and/or antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) in the therapeutic efficacy of trastuzumab, although results on these issues are still controversial. This study was aimed to evaluate in vitro the functional relationships among FcγRIIIA/IIA polymorphisms, ADCC intensity and HER-2 expression on tumor target cells and to correlate them with response to trastuzumab. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Twenty-five patients with HER-2 overexpressing BC, receiving trastuzumab in a neoadjuvant (NEO) or metastatic (MTS) setting, were genotyped for the FcγRIIIA 158V>F and FcγRIIA 131H>R polymorphisms by a newly developed pyrosequencing assay and by multiplex Tetra-primer-ARMS PCR, respectively. Trastuzumab-mediated ADCC of patients' peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) was evaluated prior to therapy and measured by (51)Chromium release using as targets three human BC cell lines showing different levels of reactivity with trastuzumab. RESULTS: We found that the FcγRIIIA 158F and/or the FcγRIIA 131R variants, commonly reported as unfavorable in BC, may actually behave as ADCC favorable genotypes, in both the NEO (P ranging from 0.009 to 0.039 and from 0.007 to 0.047, respectively) and MTS (P ranging from 0.009 to 0.032 and P = 0.034, respectively) patients. The ADCC intensity was affected by different levels of trastuzumab reactivity with BC target cells. In this context, the MCF-7 cell line, showing the lowest reactivity with trastuzumab, resulted the most suitable cell line for evaluating ADCC and response to trastuzumab. Indeed, we found a statistically significant correlation between an increased frequency of patients showing ADCC of MCF-7 and complete response to trastuzumab in the NEO setting (P = 0.006). CONCLUSIONS: Although this study was performed in a limited number of patients, it would indicate a correlation of FcγR gene polymorphisms to the ADCC extent in combination with the HER-2 expression levels on tumor target cells in BC patients. However, to confirm our findings further experimental evidences obtained from a larger cohort of BC patients are mandatory.

Quinazolinedione SIRT6 inhibitors sensitize cancer cells to chemotherapeutics.

The NAD(+)-dependent sirtuin SIRT6 is highly expressed in human breast, prostate, and skin cancer where it mediates resistance to cytotoxic agents and prevents differentiation. Thus, SIRT6 is an attractive target for the development of new anticancer agents to be used alone or in combination with chemo- or radiotherapy. Here we report on the identification of novel quinazolinedione compounds with inhibitory activity on SIRT6. As predicted based on SIRT6's biological functions, the identified new SIRT6 inhibitors increase histone H3 lysine 9 acetylation, reduce TNF-α production and increase glucose uptake in cultured cells. In addition, these compounds exacerbate DNA damage and cell death in response to the PARP inhibitor olaparib in BRCA2-deficient Capan-1 cells and cooperate with gemcitabine to the killing of pancreatic cancer cells. In conclusion, new SIRT6 inhibitors with a quinazolinedione-based structure have been identified which are active in cells and could potentially find applications in cancer treatment.

Treatment with KLEPTOSE® CRYSMEB reduces mouse atherogenesis by impacting on lipid profile and Th1 lymphocyte response.

The ability of pharmacological agents to target both "classical" risk factors and inflammation may be key for successful outcomes in the prevention and treatment of atherogenesis. Among the promising drugs interfering with cholesterol metabolism, we investigated whether methyl beta-cyclodextrin (KLEPTOSE® CRYSMEB) could positively impact on atherogenesis, lipid profile and atherosclerotic plaque inflammation in ApoE-/- mice. Eleven-week old ApoE-/- mice were fed either a normal diet (N.D.) or a high-cholesterol diet (H.D.), resulting in different levels of hypercholesterolemia. KLEPTOSE® CRYSMEB (40mg/kg) or vehicle was intraperitoneally administrated 3 times per week in the last 16weeks before euthanasia in mice under N.D. and in the last 11weeks under H.D. Treatment with KLEPTOSE® CRYSMEB reduced triglyceride serum levels in both atherogenesis mouse models. In H.D. mice, treatment with KLEPTOSE® CRYSMEB increased HDL-cholesterol levels and reduced free fatty acids and spleen weight. In both mouse models, treatment with KLEPTOSE® CRYSMEB reduced atherosclerotic plaque size in thoraco-abdominal aortas and intraplaque T lymphocyte content, but did not induce relevant improvements in other histological parameters of vulnerability (macrophage, neutrophil, MMP-9 and collagen content). Conversely and more markedly in H.D. mice, treatment with KLEPTOSE® CRYSMEB was associated with a reduction in genetic markers of Th1-mediated immune response. In vitro, KLEPTOSE® CRYSMEB dose-dependently abrogated Th1 proliferation and IFNγ release. In conclusion, treatment with KLEPTOSE® CRYSMEB reduced atherosclerotic plaque size by improving triglyceride serum levels and Th1-mediated response. These results indicate this drug as a potential tool for blocking atheroprogression associated with different severity degrees of hypercholesterolemia.

Nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase promotes epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition as a soluble factor independent of its enzymatic activity.

Boosting NAD(+) biosynthesis with NAD(+) intermediates has been proposed as a strategy for preventing and treating age-associated diseases, including cancer. However, concerns in this area were raised by observations that nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT), a key enzyme in mammalian NAD(+) biosynthesis, is frequently up-regulated in human malignancies, including breast cancer, suggesting possible protumorigenic effects for this protein. We addressed this issue by studying NAMPT expression and function in human breast cancer in vivo and in vitro. Our data indicate that high NAMPT levels are associated with aggressive pathological and molecular features, such as estrogen receptor negativity as well as HER2-enriched and basal-like PAM50 phenotypes. Consistent with these findings, we found that NAMPT overexpression in mammary epithelial cells induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, a morphological and functional switch that confers cancer cells an increased metastatic potential. However, importantly, NAMPT-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition was found to be independent of NAMPT enzymatic activity and of the NAMPT product nicotinamide mononucleotide. Instead, it was mediated by secreted NAMPT through its ability to activate the TGFß signaling pathway via increased TGFß1 production. These findings have implications for the design of therapeutic strategies exploiting NAD(+) biosynthesis via NAMPT in aging and cancer and also suggest the potential of anticancer agents designed to specifically neutralize extracellular NAMPT. Notably, because high levels of circulating NAMPT are found in obese and diabetic patients, our data could also explain the increased predisposition to cancer of these subjects.

Aminobisphosphonates prevent the inhibitory effects exerted by lymph node stromal cells on anti-tumor Vδ 2 T lymphocytes in non-Hodgkin lymphomas.

In this study, we analyzed the influence of mesenchymal stromal cells derived from lymph nodes of non-Hodgkin's lymphomas, on effector functions and differentiation of Vdelta (δ)2 T lymphocytes. We show that: i) lymph-node mesenchymal stromal cells of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma inhibit NKG2D-mediated lymphoid cell killing, but not rituximab-induced antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity, exerted by Vδ2 T lymphocytes; ii) pre-treatment of mesenchymal stromal cells with the aminobisphosphonates pamidronate or zoledronate can rescue lymphoma cell killing via NKG2D; iii) this is due to inhibition of transforming growth factor-ß and increase in interleukin-15 production by mesenchymal stromal cells; iv) aminobisphosphonate-treated mesenchymal stromal cells drive Vδ2 T-lymphocyte differentiation into effector memory T cells, expressing the Thelper1 cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α and interferon-γ. In non-Hodgkin's lymphoma lymph nodes, Vδ2 T cells were mostly naïve; upon co-culture with autologous lymph-node mesenchymal stromal cells exposed to zoledronate, the percentage of terminal differentiated effector memory Vδ2 T lymphocytes increased. In all non-Hodgkin's lymphomas, low or undetectable transcription of Thelper1 cytokines was found. In diffused large B-cell lymphomas and in a group of follicular lymphoma, transcription of transforming growth factor ß and interleukin-10 was enhanced compared to non-neoplastic lymph nodes. Thus, in non-Hodgkin lymphomas mesenchymal stromal cells interfere with Vδ2 T-lymphocyte cytolytic function and differentiation to Thelper1 and/or effector memory cells, depending on the prominent in situ cytokine milieu. Aminobisphosphonates, acting on lymph-node mesenchymal stromal cells, can push the balance towards Thelper1/effector memory and rescue the recognition and killing of lymphoma cells through NKG2D, sparing rituximab-induced antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity.

The engagement of CTLA-4 on primary melanoma cell lines induces antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity and TNF-α production.

BACKGROUND: CTLA-4 (Cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4) is traditionally known as a negative regulator of T cell activation. The blocking of CTLA-4 using human monoclonal antibodies, such as Ipilimumab, is currently used to relieve CTLA-4-mediated inhibition of anti-tumor immune response in metastatic melanoma. Herein, we have analyzed CTLA-4 expression and Ipilimumab reactivity on melanoma cell lines and tumor tissues from cutaneous melanoma patients. Then, we investigated whether Ipilimumab can trigger innate immunity in terms of antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) or Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)-α release. Finally, a xenograft murine model was set up to determine in vivo the effects of Ipilimumab and NK cells on melanoma. METHODS: CTLA-4 expression and Ipilimumab reactivity were analyzed on 17 melanoma cell lines (14 primary and 3 long-term cell lines) by cytofluorimetry and on 33 melanoma tissues by immunohistochemistry. CTLA-4 transcripts were analyzed by quantitative RT-PCR. Soluble CTLA-4 and TNF-α were tested by ELISA. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), NK and γδT cells were tested in ADCC assay with Ipilimumab and melanoma cell lines. TNF-α release was analyzed in NK-melanoma cell co-cultures in the presence of ipilimumab. In vivo experiments of xenotransplantation were carried out in NOD/SCID mice. Results were analyzed using unpaired Student's t-test. RESULTS: All melanoma cell lines expressed mRNA and cytoplasmic CTLA-4 but surface reactivity with Ipilimumab was quite heterogeneous. Accordingly, about 2/3 of melanoma specimens expressed CTLA-4 at different level of intensity.Ipilimumab triggered, via FcγReceptorIIIA (CD16), ex vivo NK cells as well as PBMC, IL-2 activated NK and γδT cells to ADCC of CTLA-4+ melanoma cells. No ADCC was detected upon interaction with CTLA-4- FO-1 melanoma cell line. TNF-α was released upon interaction of NK cells with CTLA-4+ melanoma cell lines. Remarkably, Ipilimumab neither affected proliferation and viability nor triggered ADCC of CTLA-4+ T lymphocytes. In a chimeric murine xenograft model, the co-engraftment of Ipilimumab-treated melanoma cells with human allogeneic NK cells delayed and significantly reduced tumor growth, as compared to mice receiving control xenografts. CONCLUSIONS: Our studies demonstrate that Ipilimumab triggers effector lymphocytes to cytotoxicity and TNF-α release. These findings suggest that Ipilimumab, besides blocking CTLA-4, can directly activate the elimination of CTLA-4+ melanomas.

Selective role of mevalonate pathway in regulating perforin but not FasL and TNFalpha release in human Natural Killer cells.

We have analyzed the effects of fluvastatin, an inhibitor of the enzyme 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase involved in mevalonate synthesis, on human NK cell-mediated anti-tumor cytolysis. Fluvastatin inhibited the activation of the small guanosin triphosphate binding protein (GTP) RhoA and the consequent actin redistribution induced by ligation of LFA1 involved in NK-tumor target cell adhesion. Also, fluvastatin reduced ganglioside M1 rafts formation triggered through the engagement of NK cell activating receptors as FcγRIIIA (CD16), NKG2D and DNAM1. Cytolysis of tumor targets was inhibited up to 90% when NK cells were cultured with fluvastatin by affecting i) receptor-mediated increase of the intracellular free calcium concentration, ii) activation of akt1/PKB and iii) perforin and granzyme release. Fluvastatin displayed a stronger inhibiting effect on NKG2D, DNAM1, 2B4, NKp30, NKp44 and NKp46 than on CD16-mediated NK cell triggering. This was in line with the impairment of surface expression of all these receptors but not of CD16. Remarkably, fluvastatin did not affect the expression of the inhibiting receptors CD94, KIR2D and LAIR1. FasL release elicited by either NK-tumor cell interaction or CD16 or NKG2D engagement, as well as FasL-mediated killing, were not sensitive to fluvastatin. Moreover, TNFα secretion triggered in NK cells upon incubation with tumor target cells or engagement of NKG2D receptor was not impaired in fluvastatin-treated NK cells. Likewise, antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) triggered through FcγRIIIA engagement with the humanized monoclonal antibody rituximab or trastuzumab was only marginally affected in fluvastatin-treated NK cells. Altogether these findings suggest that interference with mevalonate synthesis impairs activation and assembly of cytoskeleton, degranulation and cytotoxic effect of perforins and granzyme but not FasL- and TNFα-mediated cytotoxicity.

High ERp5/ADAM10 expression in lymph node microenvironment and impaired NKG2D ligands recognition in Hodgkin lymphomas.

Herein we describe that in classic Hodgkin lymphomas (cHL, n = 25) the lymph node (LN) stroma displayed in situ high levels of transcription and expression of the disulfide-isomerase ERp5 and of the disintegrin-metalloproteinase ADAM10, able to shed the ligands for NKG2D (NKG2D-L) from the cell membrane. These enzymes were detected both in LN mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) and in Reed-Sternberg (RS) cells; in addition, MIC-A and ULBP3 were present in culture supernatants of LN MSCs or RS cells. NKG2D-L-negative RS cells could not be killed by CD8(+)αßT or γδT cells; tumor cell killing was partially restored by treating RS cells with valproic acid, which enhanced NKG2D-L surface expression. Upon coculture with LN MSCs, CD8(+)αßT and γδT cells strongly reduced their cytolytic activity against NKG2D-L(+) targets; this seems to be the result of TGF-ß, present at the tumor site, produced in vitro by LN MSCs and able to down-regulate the expression of NKG2D on T lymphocytes. In addition, CD8(+)αßT and γδT cells from the lymph nodes of cHL patients, cocultured in vitro with LN MSCs, underwent TGF-ß-mediated down regulation of NKG2D. Thus, in cHL the tumor microenvironment is prone to inhibit the development of an efficient antitumor response.

Differential survival of γδT cells, αßT cells and NK cells upon engagement of NKG2D by NKG2DL-expressing leukemic cells.

Herein, we show that γδT, CD8(+) αßT lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cells display a different sensitivity to survival signals delivered via NKG2D surface receptor. All the three effector cell populations activate Akt1/PKBalpha through the engagement of this molecule. Upon binding to leukemic cells expressing NKG2D ligands (NKG2DL), including chronic lymphocytic leukemias treated with transretinoic acid, most γδT (>60%) and half CD8(+) αßT cells (about 50%) received a survival signal, at variance with the majority of NK cells (>80%) that underwent apoptosis by day 5. Interestingly, oligomerization of NKG2D in γδT or CD8(+) αßT cells, led to a significant rise in nuclear/cytoplasmic ratio of both NF-kBp52 and RelB, the two NF-kB subunits mainly involved in the transcription of antiapoptotic proteins of the Bcl family. Indeed, the ratio between the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 or Bcl-x(L) and the proapoptotic protein Bax raised in γδT or CD8(+) αßT cells following NKG2D engagement by specific monoclonal antibodies or by NKG2DL expressing leukemic cells. Conversely, nuclear translocation of NF-kBp52 or RelB did not increase, nor the Bcl-2/Bax or the Bcl-x(L) /Bax ratios changed significantly, in NK cells upon oligomerizaton of NKG2D. Of note, transcripts for α5 importin, responsible for nuclear translocation of NF-kBp52/Rel B heterodimer, are significantly higher in γδT and CD8(+) αßT cells than in NK cells. These biochemical data may explain, at least in part, why γδT and CD8(+) αßT cells are cytolytic effector cells more resistant to target-induced apoptosis than NK cells.

Soluble HLA-I-mediated secretion of TGF-beta1 by human NK cells and consequent down-regulation of anti-tumor cytolytic activity.

Soluble HLA class I (sHLA-I) molecules can regulate survival of NK cells and their anti-tumor killing activity. Herein, we have analysed whether interaction of sHLA-I with CD8 and/or different isoforms of killer Ig-like receptors (KIR) induced secretion of transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta1. CD8+KIR- NK cell clones secreted TGF-beta1 upon the interaction of sHLA-I with CD8 molecule. sHLA-Cw4 or sHLA-Cw3 alleles engaging inhibitory isoforms of KIR, namely KIR2DL1 or KIR2DL2, strongly downregulated TGF-beta1 production elicited through CD8. On the other hand, sHLA-Cw4 or sHLA-Cw3 alleles induced secretion of TGF-beta1 by ligation of stimulatory KIR2DS1 or KIR2DS2 isoforms. TGF-beta1 strongly reduced NK cell-mediated tumor cell lysis and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma. Also, TGF-beta1 inhibited NK cell cytolysis induced by the engagement of stimulatory receptors including NKG2D, DNAM1, 2B4, CD69, NKp30, NKp44 and NKp46. The IL-2-dependent surface upregulation of some of these receptors was prevented by TGF-beta1. Furthermore, TGF-beta1 hampered IL-2-induced NK cell proliferation but not IL-2-mediated rescue from apoptosis of NK cells. Depletion of TGF-beta1 restored all the NK cell-mediated functional activities analysed. Taken together these findings suggest that sHLA-I antigens may downregulate the NK cell-mediated innate response by inducing TGF-beta1 release.

Modulation of human lung fibroblast functions by ciclesonide: evidence for its conversion into the active metabolite desisobutyryl-ciclesonide.

BACKGROUND: Ciclesonide, an inhaled corticosteroid administered as inactive compound with almost no binding affinity for the glucocorticoid receptor, is clinically effective in asthma being converted by airway epithelial cells into its active metabolite desisobutyryl-(des)-ciclesonide. AIM: To evaluate whether ciclesonide could directly modulate in vitro bronchial fibroblast functions being converted into des-ciclesonide by these pluripotent cells involved in the regulation of airway inflammation and remodelling. METHODS: Ciclesonide (0.09-9.0 microM) was added to a human adult lung fibroblast cell line (CCL-202), seeded in medium in the presence of the following cytokines and growth factors: (a) basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) for cell proliferation, measured by tritiated thymidine ([3H]TdR) incorporation; (b) tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, to stimulate intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 expression and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and eotaxin release, evaluated by flow cytometry and ELISA, respectively; (c) transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta1, for induction of alpha smooth muscle actin (alpha-SMA) protein expression and modification of the organization of alpha-SMA stress fibres, evaluated by Western blot analysis and fluorescence microscopy. RESULTS: The presence of ciclesonide in cell cultures induced a significant downregulation of: (a) bFGF-induced fibroblast proliferation and TNF-alpha-induced ICAM-1 expression, at the 0.3-9.0 microM concentrations (p<0.05); (b) TNF-alpha-induced MCP-1 release, at all the concentrations tested (p<0.05); (c) TNF-alpha-induced eotaxin release, at the three highest concentrations (0.9-9.0 microM) (p<0.05); (d) TGF-beta1-induced of alpha-SMA protein expression at the 0.3-3.0 microM concentrations, associated with a reduction in the organization of alpha-SMA stress fibres. CONCLUSIONS: These data show at cellular level an effective anti-inflammatory activity of ciclesonide on human lung fibroblasts and support the hypothesis that also these cells, in addition to airway epithelial cells, may be involved in converting the parental compound into its active metabolite in the airways.