Long-term context-dependent genetic adaptation of the viral genetic cloud.

MOTIVATION: RNA viruses generate a cloud of genetic variants within each host. This cloud contains high-frequency genotypes, and many rare variants. The dynamics of these variants is crucial to understand viral evolution and their effect on their host. RESULTS: We use an experimental evolution system to show that the genetic cloud surrounding the Coxsackie virus master sequence slowly, but steadily, evolves over hundreds of generations. This movement is determined by strong context-dependent mutations, where the frequency and type of mutations are affected by neighboring positions, even in silent mutations. This context-dependent mutation pattern serves as a spearhead for the viral population's movement within the adaptive landscape and affects which new dominant variants will emerge. The non-local mutation patterns affect the mutated dinucleotide distribution, and eventually lead to a non-uniform dinucleotide distribution in the main viral sequence. We tested these results on other RNA viruses with similar conclusions. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Attenuation of RNA viruses by redirecting their evolution in sequence space.

RNA viruses pose serious threats to human health. Their success relies on their capacity to generate genetic variability and, consequently, on their adaptive potential. We describe a strategy to attenuate RNA viruses by altering their evolutionary potential. We rationally altered the genomes of Coxsackie B3 and influenza A viruses to redirect their evolutionary trajectories towards detrimental regions in sequence space. Specifically, viral genomes were engineered to harbour more serine and leucine codons with nonsense mutation targets: codons that could generate Stop mutations after a single nucleotide substitution. Indeed, these viruses generated more Stop mutations both in vitro and in vivo, accompanied by significant losses in viral fitness. In vivo, the viruses were attenuated, generated high levels of neutralizing antibodies and protected against lethal challenge. Our study demonstrates that cornering viruses in 'risky' areas of sequence space may be implemented as a broad-spectrum vaccine strategy against RNA viruses.

Increasing Clinical Severity during a Dengue Virus Type 3 Cuban Epidemic: Deep Sequencing of Evolving Viral Populations.

UNLABELLED: During the dengue virus type 3 (DENV-3) epidemic that occurred in Havana in 2001 to 2002, severe disease was associated with the infection sequence DENV-1 followed by DENV-3 (DENV-1/DENV-3), while the sequence DENV-2/DENV-3 was associated with mild/asymptomatic infections. To determine the role of the virus in the increasing severity demonstrated during the epidemic, serum samples collected at different time points were studied. A total of 22 full-length sequences were obtained using a deep-sequencing approach. Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of consensus sequences revealed that two DENV-3 lineages were circulating in Havana at that time, both grouped within genotype III. The predominant lineage is closely related to Peruvian and Ecuadorian strains, while the minor lineage is related to Venezuelan strains. According to consensus sequences, relatively few nonsynonymous mutations were observed; only one was fixed during the epidemic at position 4380 in the NS2B gene. Intrahost genetic analysis indicated that a significant minor population was selected and became predominant toward the end of the epidemic. In conclusion, greater variability was detected during the epidemic's progression in terms of significant minority variants, particularly in the nonstructural genes. An increasing trend of genetic diversity toward the end of the epidemic was observed only for synonymous variant allele rates, with higher variability in secondary cases. Remarkably, significant intrahost genetic variation was demonstrated within the same patient during the course of secondary infection with DENV-1/DENV-3, including changes in the structural proteins premembrane (PrM) and envelope (E). Therefore, the dynamic of evolving viral populations in the context of heterotypic antibodies could be related to the increasing clinical severity observed during the epidemic. IMPORTANCE: Based on the evidence that DENV fitness is context dependent, our research has focused on the study of viral factors associated with intraepidemic increasing severity in a unique epidemiological setting. Here, we investigated the intrahost genetic diversity in acute human samples collected at different time points during the DENV-3 epidemic that occurred in Cuba in 2001 to 2002 using a deep-sequencing approach. We concluded that greater variability in significant minor populations occurred as the epidemic progressed, particularly in the nonstructural genes, with higher variability observed in secondary infection cases. Remarkably, for the first time significant intrahost genetic variation was demonstrated within the same patient during the course of secondary infection with DENV-1/DENV-3, including changes in structural proteins. These findings indicate that high-resolution approaches are needed to unravel molecular mechanisms involved in dengue pathogenesis.

Fidelity Variants and RNA Quasispecies.

By now, it is well established that the error rate of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) that replicates RNA virus genomes is a primary driver of the mutation frequencies observed in RNA virus populations-the basis for the RNA quasispecies. Over the last 10 years, a considerable amount of work has uncovered the molecular determinants of replication fidelity in this enzyme. The isolation of high- and low-fidelity variants for several RNA viruses, in an expanding number of viral families, provides evidence that nature has optimized the fidelity to facilitate genetic diversity and adaptation, while maintaining genetic integrity and infectivity. This chapter will provide an overview of what fidelity variants tell us about RNA virus biology and how they may be used in antiviral approaches.

Group Selection and Contribution of Minority Variants during Virus Adaptation Determines Virus Fitness and Phenotype.

Understanding how a pathogen colonizes and adapts to a new host environment is a primary aim in studying emerging infectious diseases. Adaptive mutations arise among the thousands of variants generated during RNA virus infection, and identifying these variants will shed light onto how changes in tropism and species jumps can occur. Here, we adapted Coxsackie virus B3 to a highly permissive and less permissive environment. Using deep sequencing and bioinformatics, we identified a multi-step adaptive process to adaptation involving residues in the receptor footprints that correlated with receptor availability and with increase in virus fitness in an environment-specific manner. We show that adaptation occurs by selection of a dominant mutation followed by group selection of minority variants that together, confer the fitness increase observed in the population, rather than selection of a single dominant genotype.

Deep sequencing analysis of viral infection and evolution allows rapid and detailed characterization of viral mutant spectrum.

MOTIVATION: The study of RNA virus populations is a challenging task. Each population of RNA virus is composed of a collection of different, yet related genomes often referred to as mutant spectra or quasispecies. Virologists using deep sequencing technologies face major obstacles when studying virus population dynamics, both experimentally and in natural settings due to the relatively high error rates of these technologies and the lack of high performance pipelines. In order to overcome these hurdles we developed a computational pipeline, termed ViVan (Viral Variance Analysis). ViVan is a complete pipeline facilitating the identification, characterization and comparison of sequence variance in deep sequenced virus populations. RESULTS: Applying ViVan on deep sequenced data obtained from samples that were previously characterized by more classical approaches, we uncovered novel and potentially crucial aspects of virus populations. With our experimental work, we illustrate how ViVan can be used for studies ranging from the more practical, detection of resistant mutations and effects of antiviral treatments, to the more theoretical temporal characterization of the population in evolutionary studies. AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION: Freely available on the web at http://www.vivanbioinfo.org CONTACT: : nshomron@post.tau.ac.il SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Emergence and transmission of arbovirus evolutionary intermediates with epidemic potential.

The high replication and mutation rates of RNA viruses can result in the emergence of new epidemic variants. Thus, the ability to follow host-specific evolutionary trajectories of viruses is essential to predict and prevent epidemics. By studying the spatial and temporal evolution of chikungunya virus during natural transmission between mosquitoes and mammals, we have identified viral evolutionary intermediates prior to emergence. Analysis of virus populations at anatomical barriers revealed that the mosquito midgut and salivary gland pose population bottlenecks. By focusing on virus subpopulations in the saliva of multiple mosquito strains, we recapitulated the emergence of a recent epidemic strain of chikungunya and identified E1 glycoprotein mutations with potential to emerge in the future. These mutations confer fitness advantages in mosquito and mammalian hosts by altering virion stability and fusogenic activity. Thus, virus evolutionary trajectories can be predicted and studied in the short term before new variants displace currently circulating strains.

Coxsackievirus B3 mutator strains are attenuated in vivo.

Based on structural data of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, rational targeting of key residues, and screens for Coxsackievirus B3 fidelity variants, we isolated nine polymerase variants with mutator phenotypes, which allowed us to probe the effects of lowering fidelity on virus replication, mutability, and in vivo fitness. These mutator strains generate higher mutation frequencies than WT virus and are more sensitive to mutagenic treatments, and their purified polymerases present lower-fidelity profiles in an in vitro incorporation assay. Whereas these strains replicate with WT-like kinetics in tissue culture, in vivo infections reveal a strong correlation between mutation frequency and fitness. Variants with the highest mutation frequencies are less fit in vivo and fail to productively infect important target organs, such as the heart or pancreas. Furthermore, whereas WT virus is readily detectable in target organs 30 d after infection, some variants fail to successfully establish persistent infections. Our results show that, although mutator strains are sufficiently fit when grown in large population size, their fitness is greatly impacted when subjected to severe bottlenecking, which would occur during in vivo infection. The data indicate that, although RNA viruses have extreme mutation frequencies to maximize adaptability, nature has fine-tuned replication fidelity. Our work forges ground in showing that the mutability of RNA viruses does have an upper limit, where larger than natural genetic diversity is deleterious to virus survival.

Arbovirus high fidelity variant loses fitness in mosquitoes and mice.

The error rate of RNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RdRp) affects the mutation frequency in a population of viral RNAs. Using chikungunya virus (CHIKV), we describe a unique arbovirus fidelity variant with a single C483Y amino acid change in the nsP4 RdRp that increases replication fidelity and generates populations with reduced genetic diversity. In mosquitoes, high fidelity CHIKV presents lower infection and dissemination titers than wild type. In newborn mice, high fidelity CHIKV produces truncated viremias and lower organ titers. These results indicate that increased replication fidelity and reduced genetic diversity negatively impact arbovirus fitness in invertebrate and vertebrate hosts.

Isolation of fidelity variants of RNA viruses and characterization of virus mutation frequency.

RNA viruses use RNA dependent RNA polymerases to replicate their genomes. The intrinsically high error rate of these enzymes is a large contributor to the generation of extreme population diversity that facilitates virus adaptation and evolution. Increasing evidence shows that the intrinsic error rates, and the resulting mutation frequencies, of RNA viruses can be modulated by subtle amino acid changes to the viral polymerase. Although biochemical assays exist for some viral RNA polymerases that permit quantitative measure of incorporation fidelity, here we describe a simple method of measuring mutation frequencies of RNA viruses that has proven to be as accurate as biochemical approaches in identifying fidelity altering mutations. The approach uses conventional virological and sequencing techniques that can be performed in most biology laboratories. Based on our experience with a number of different viruses, we have identified the key steps that must be optimized to increase the likelihood of isolating fidelity variants and generating data of statistical significance. The isolation and characterization of fidelity altering mutations can provide new insights into polymerase structure and function(1-3). Furthermore, these fidelity variants can be useful tools in characterizing mechanisms of virus adaptation and evolution(4-7).

RNA virus population diversity: implications for inter-species transmission.

RNA viruses are notorious for rapidly generating genetically diverse populations during a single replication cycle, and the implications of this mutant population, often referred to as quasispecies, can be vast. Previous studies have linked RNA virus genetic variability to changes in viral pathogenesis, the ability to adapt to a host during infection, and to the acquisition of mechanisms required to switch hosts entirely. However, these initial studies are just the beginning. With the development of next generation technologies, groups will be able to dig deeper into the sequence space that is generated during an RNA virus infection and more clearly understand the development, role, and consequences of viral genetic diversity.

Interplay between RNA structure and protein evolution in HIV-1.

The genomes of many RNA viruses contain abundant secondary structures that have been shown to be important for understanding the evolution of noncoding regions and synonymous sites. However, the consequences for protein evolution are less well understood. Recently, the secondary structure of the HIV-1 RNA genome has been experimentally determined. Using this information, here we show that RNA structure and proteins do not evolve independently. A negative correlation exists between the extent of base pairing in the genomic RNA and amino acid variability. Relaxed RNA structures may favor the accumulation of genetic variation in proteins and, conversely, sequence changes driven by positive selection at the protein level may disrupt existing RNA structures. We also find that breakage of RNA base pairs might impose a fitness cost to drug resistance mutations in the protease and reverse transcriptase genes, thereby limiting their spread among untreated patients. Characterizing the evolutionary trade-offs between the selective pressures acting at the RNA and protein levels will help us to better understand the variability and evolution of HIV-1.

Dynamics of in vitro fitness recovery of HIV-1.

The study on the evolutionary consequences of an RNA viral population's fluctuations can be approached by in vitro experiments. This work describes the fitness recovery of HIV-1 after 20 large-population passages in 10 debilitated clones. The serial passages promoted an increase in viral fitness. In addition, we detected a significant number of mutations fixed in the complete genome consensus sequence of the final viral populations. Among the mutations, events of convergent evolution with important phenotypic characteristics occurred in several independent clones. One common change, V35I, in the nuclear localization signal of the p17 protein appeared in four viruses of three different lineages. Other common alterations mapped in position E196K of the reverse transcriptase or in position S316K of the V3 loop of the gp120 residue that is associated with the X4/R5 phenotype. Together with this mutational analysis, we studied the quasispecies heterogeneity of the initial and final viruses, revealing that fitness increase correlated with an augmentation in the genetic heterogeneity of viral quasispecies. However, while heterogeneity was mostly composed of synonymous (dS) mutations in the first 10 passages performed, at passage 21 it switched to nonsynonymous (dN) substitutions, with significant differences in dN - dS values between passages 11 and 21. In summary, the HIV-1 in vitro fitness recovery depicts a multiphase process occurring first by generation of mutations followed by fixation of the beneficial ones, depicting a classical Darwinian process.

Initial fitness recovery of HIV-1 is associated with quasispecies heterogeneity and can occur without modifications in the consensus sequence.

BACKGROUND: Fitness recovery of HIV-1 "in vitro" was studied using viral clones that had their fitness decreased as a result of plaque-to-plaque passages. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: After ten large population passages, the viral populations showed an average increase of fitness, although with wide variations among clones. While 5 clones showed significant fitness increases, 3 clones showed increases that were only marginally significant (p<0.1), and 4 clones did not show any change. Fitness recovery was not accompanied by an increase in p24 production, but was associated with an increase in viral titer. Few mutations (an average of 2 mutations per genome) were detected in the consensus nucleotide sequence of the entire genome in all viral populations. Five of the populations did not fix any mutation, and three of them displayed marginally significant fitness increases, illustrating that fitness recovery can occur without detectable alterations of the consensus genomic sequence. The investigation of other possible viral factors associated with the initial steps of fitness recovery, showed that viral quasispecies heterogeneity increased between the initial clones and the passaged populations. A direct statistical correlation between viral heterogeneity and viral fitness was obtained. CONCLUSIONS: Thus, the initial fitness recovery of debilitated HIV-1 clones was mediated by an increase in quasispecies heterogeneity. This observation, together with the invariance of the consensus sequence despite fitness increases demonstrates the relevance of quasispecies heterogeneity in the evolution of HIV-1 in cell culture.

Optimization of human immunodeficiency virus gag expression by newcastle disease virus vectors for the induction of potent immune responses.

One attractive strategy for the development of a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) vaccine is the use of viral vectors with a proven safety profile and an absence of preexisting immunity in humans, such as Newcastle disease virus (NDV). Several NDV vaccine vectors have been generated, and their immunogenicities have been investigated with different animal models. However, a systematic study to evaluate the optimal insertion site of the foreign antigens into NDV that results in enhanced immune responses specific to the antigen has not yet been conducted. In this article, we describe the ability of NDV expressing HIV Gag to generate a Gag-specific immune response in mice. We also have determined the optimal insertion site into the NDV genome by generating recombinant NDV-HIVGag viruses in which HIV gag was located at different transcriptional positions throughout the NDV viral genome. All recombinant viruses were viable, grew to similar titers in embryonated chicken eggs, and expressed Gag in a stable manner. Our in vivo experiments revealed that higher HIV Gag protein expression positively correlates with an enhanced CD8(+) T-cell-mediated immune response and protective immunity against challenge with vaccinia virus expressing HIV Gag. We also inserted a codon-optimized version of HIV gag in the described best location, between the P and M genes. Virus expressing the codon-optimized version of HIV gag induced a higher expression of the protein and an enhanced immune response against HIV Gag in mice. These results indicate that strategies directed toward increasing antigen expression by NDV result in enhanced immunogenicity and vaccine efficacy.

Antiviral-activated dendritic cells: a paracrine-induced response state.

Infection of immature dendritic cells (DCs) by virus stimulates their maturation into APC. Infected DCs can also expose uninfected DCs to a panoply of cytokines/chemokines via paracrine signaling. Mathematical modeling suggests that a high rate of paracrine signaling is likely to occur among DCs located in three-dimensional space. Relatively little is known about how secreted factors modify the early response to virus infection. We used a transwell experimental system that allows passage of secreted factors, but not direct contact, between virus-infected DCs and uninfected DCs to investigate paracrine signaling responses. Paracrine signaling from infected DCs induced an antiviral-primed DC state distinct from that of mature virus-infected DCs that we refer to as antiviral-activated DCs (AVDCs). AVDCs had increased surface MHC class II and CD86 levels, but in contrast to virus-infected DCs, their MHC class I levels were unchanged. Imaging flow cytometry showed that AVDCs had an increased rate of phagocytosis compared with naive DCs. Experiments with IFN-beta cytokine indicated that it may be responsible for CD86, but not MHC class II regulation in AVDCs. Both IFN-inducible and IFN-independent genes are up-regulated in AVDCs. Notably, AVDCs are relatively resistant to virus infection in comparison to naive DCs and achieve accelerated and augmented levels of costimulatory molecule expression with virus infection. AVDCs show a distinct antiviral-primed state of DC maturation mediated by DC paracrine signaling. Although further in vivo study is needed, the characteristics of the AVDC suggest that it is well suited to play a role in the early innate-adaptive transition of the immune system.

Selection promotes organ compartmentalization in HIV-1: evidence from gag and pol genes.

The existence of organ-specific human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) populations within infected hosts has been long lasting studied. Previous work established that population subdivision by organs occurs at the envelope env gene, but less is known about other genomic regions. Here, we used a population genetics approach to detect organ compartmentalization in proviral sequences of HIV-1 gag and pol genes. Significant population structure was found in pol (100% of cases) and gag (33%) pair-wise organ comparisons. The degree of compartmentalization positively correlated with the ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous substitutions, and codons showing organ compartmentalization were more likely to be under significantly positive selection. This suggests that HIV-1 populations dynamically adapt to locally variable intra-host environments. In the case of pol gene, differential penetration of antiretroviral drugs might account for the observed pattern, whereas for gag gene, local selective pressures remain unexplored.

Few mutations in the 5' leader region mediate fitness recovery of debilitated human immunodeficiency type 1 viruses.

Repeated bottleneck passages of RNA viruses result in fitness losses due to the accumulation of deleterious mutations. In contrast, repeated transfers of large virus populations result in exponential fitness increases. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) manifested a drastic fitness loss after a limited number of plaque-to-plaque transfers in MT-4 cells. An analysis of the mutations associated with fitness loss in four debilitated clones revealed mutation frequencies in gag that were threefold higher than those in env. We now show an increase in the fitness of the debilitated HIV-1 clones by repeated passages of large populations. An analysis of the entire genomic nucleotide sequences of these populations showed that few mutations, from two to seven per clone, mediated fitness recovery. Eight of the 20 mutations affected coding regions, mainly by the introduction of nonsynonymous mutations (75%). However, most of the mutations accumulated during fitness recovery (12 of 20) were located in the 5' untranslated leader region of the genome, and more specifically, in the primer binding site (PBS) loop. Two of the viruses incorporated the same mutation in the primer activation signal in the PBS loop, which is critical for the tRNA3Lys-mediated initiation of reverse transcription. Moreover, 25% of the mutations observed were reversions. This fact, together with the presence of a large proportion of nonsynonymous replacements, may disclose the operation, during large population passages, of strong positive selection for optimal HIV-1 replication, which seems to be primarily affected by binding of the tRNA to the PBS and the initiation of reverse transcription.

r- and K-selection in experimental populations of vesicular stomatitis virus.

Here we explore the adaptation of vesicular stomatitis RNA virus to different population densities and the existence of a trade-off between r- and K-selection. Increasing population density represents a challenging special situation for viruses, since different selective pressures arise depending upon the number of available host cells per virus. Adaptation to low density represents a prototypical case of r-selection, where the optimal evolutionary solution should be a high replication rate. Adaptation to high density represents a case of K-selection. In this case, genotypes optimally exploiting the resources, instead of faster replicating ones, should be selected. Five independent populations were maintained in two environments, called r and K, for 100 generations. In the r environment, effective population size was small. In contrast, the effective population size in the K environment was large. Our results support the existence of the expected trade-offs between these two types of selections. Viral populations evolved at low density performed worse as population density increased. Similarly, viral populations evolved at high density showed reduced fitness at low density. Finally, we compare our results with those obtained for other RNA viruses.