Scorecard Approach to Eliminate Onchocerciasis in Venezuela.

In the Americas, onchocerciasis has been eliminated in 11 of 13 endemic foci by mass administration of ivermectin. The remaining at-risk population resides in a contiguous cross-border transmission zone located in the Amazon jungle in northwest Brazil and southern Venezuela, known as the Yanomami Focus Area. Here, we describe the development and implementation of a data-driven tool, called the Scorecard Approach (SCA), for the 393 communities that comprise the Venezuela South Focus. The SCA was first applied in 2018 and is reassessed on an annual basis. This operational strategy seeks to prioritize communities with low ivermectin coverage while taking into account the nature and variation of other epidemiological and logistical variables. Numeric scores are assigned for each factor and added together to yield a composite score for each community that is categorized as high, medium, or low priority. In this way, the SCA serves as a valuable and comprehensive strategy for planning, monitoring, and maximizing programmatic efficiency. In addition, it has allowed the country to face the main challenges of this endemic area: its remoteness, its large areas of territory to cover, the semi-nomadic nature of the Yanomami people, and their continuous cross-border movements. For 2022, the SCA categorized 54 (13.7%), 108 (27.5%), and 231 (58.8%) communities as high, medium, and low priority, respectively. The results presented here show that prioritizing communities at risk and with greatest needs increases the feasibility of interrupting the transmission of onchocerciasis by 2025 in the last endemic focus in the Americas.

Evidence of suppression of onchocerciasis transmission in the Venezuelan Amazonian focus.

BACKGROUND: The World Health Organization (WHO) has set goals for onchocerciasis elimination in Latin America by 2015. Most of the six previously endemic countries are attaining this goal by implementing twice a year (and in some foci, quarterly) mass ivermectin (Mectizan®) distribution. Elimination of transmission has been verified in Colombia, Ecuador and Mexico. Challenges remain in the Amazonian focus straddling Venezuela and Brazil, where the disease affects the hard-to-reach Yanomami indigenous population. We provide evidence of suppression of Onchocerca volvulus transmission by Simulium guianense s.l. in 16 previously hyperendemic Yanomami communities in southern Venezuela after 15 years of 6-monthly and 5 years of 3-monthly mass ivermectin treatment. METHODS: Baseline and monitoring and evaluation parasitological, ophthalmological, entomological and serological surveys were conducted in selected sentinel and extra-sentinel communities of the focus throughout the implementation of the programme. RESULTS: From 2010 to 2012-2015, clinico-parasitological surveys indicate a substantial decrease in skin microfilarial prevalence and intensity of infection; accompanied by no evidence (or very low prevalence and intensity) of ocular microfilariae in the examined population. Of a total of 51,341 S. guianense flies tested by PCR none had L3 infection (heads only). Prevalence of infective flies and seasonal transmission potentials in 2012-2013 were, respectively, under 1% and 20 L3/person/transmission season. Serology in children aged 1-10 years demonstrated that although 26 out of 396 (7%) individuals still had Ov-16 antibodies, only 4/218 (2%) seropositives were aged 1-5 years. CONCLUSIONS: We report evidence of recent transmission and morbidity suppression in some communities of the focus representing 75% of the Yanomami population and 70% of all known communities. We conclude that onchocerciasis transmission could be feasibly interrupted in the Venezuelan Amazonian focus.

Primer registro de triatóminos naturalmente infectados por Trypanosoma cruzi en el estado Bolívar, Venezuela / First record of naturally infected triatomines with trypanosoma cruzi, Bolivar state, Venezuela

La enfermedad de chagas o tripanosomiasis americana está adquiriendo cada vez mayor importancia en la región amazónica de Venezuela, en la cual hasta ahora se carecía de información de la presencia de trypanosoma cruzi en triatóminos, reservorios y humanos, particularmente para el estado Bolívar, el estado de mayor superficie del país, situado al sur del río Orinoco. Cuatro ejemplares de triatoma maculata fueron recolectados en el peridomicilio de la comunidad de Maniapure, en el municipio Cedeño. En dos de los ejemplares se determinó la infección natural por trypanosoma cruzi al examen al fresco de heces con presencia de tripomastigotos metacíclicos infectantes. Los parásitos fueron inoculados en modelos murinos y aislados en cultivos para su caracterización molecular. Se confirmó el diagnóstico de este parásito por pruebas parasitológicas y moleculares, caracterizándose los aislados como TcI. La importancia de estos hallazgos pioneros podría motivar el estudio de la transmisión vectorial de la enfermedad de chagas en este estado catalogado como no endémico.

American trypanosomiasis or chagas disease is becoming increasingly important in the Amazon region of Venezuela, in which up to now information was lacking of the presence of trypanosoma cruzi in triatomins, reservoirs and humans, particularly for Bolivar state, the state with the largest territory of the country, located in the south of the Orinoco river. Four specimens of triatoma maculata were collected in the peri-domiciliar area of the community of Maniapure, in the Cedeño municipality. Two of these individuals were found naturally infected with trypanosoma cruzi upon examination of fresh stool with presence of metacyclic trypomastigotes. Parasites were inoculated in murine models and isolated for molecular characterization. Parasite isolates were molecularly characterized as TcI. The importance of these pioneering findings should motivate the study of the vector or oral transmission of Chagas disease in this non endemic State of Venezuela.

Hidatidosis poliquística autóctona en dos pacientes Yanomami en el Alto Orinoco, Amazonas, Venezuela / Polycystic hydatid disease in two patients indigenous Yanomami in the Upper Orinoco, Amazonas, Venezuela

La infección por Echinococcus sp. es hipoendémica en Venezuela. Sólo cuatro casos de hidatidosis autóctona por E. vogeli han sido reportados, tres de ellos en la región de la Guayana venezolana. En Febrero del año 2009 se realizó el diagnóstico clínico-sero-epidemiológico de hidatidosis poliquística en una paciente femenina de la etnia Yanomami, procedente de Parima B, Alto Orinoco, en la Amazonía venezolana. Se resolvió con tratamiento médico y quirúrgico por laparoscopia y se evidenció en el quiste la presencia de ganchos rostelares compatibles con E. vogeli. En Abril del 2009 en una segunda paciente Yanomami de igual procedencia, se le diagnosticó hidatidosis por E. vogeli siendo operada exitosamente por cirugía laparoscópica asistida por robot. Dos casos humanos en una misma población y la presencia de factores de riesgo como la tenencia de perros domésticos y la comunicación por informantes indígenas del hallazgo de quistes en hígados de animales de cacería (Cuniculus paca o lapa y Dasyprocta sp. o picure), hacen pensar en transmisión activa en la cuenca del Alto Orinoco y en zonas selváticas de la Guayana venezolana. El presente, es el primer registro de casos de hidatidosis poliquística en indígenas de la etnia Yanomami.

Infection by Echinococcus sp. is hypoendemic in Venezuela. Only four cases of autochthonous E. vogeli hydatidosis have been reported, including three in the Venezuelan region of Guayana. In February 2009, based on epidemiological data, signs and symptoms and serological tests, a female patient of the Yanomami ethnic group, was diagnosed with a polycystic hydatid disease in Parima B, Alto Orinoco, in the Venezuelan Amazon. Rostellar hooks compatible with E. vogeli were found in the cyst. It was resolved with medical and surgical treatment by laparoscopy. A second Yanomami patient from the same location was diagnosed with E. vogeli hydatidosis in April 2009, being successfully operated with robot-assisted laparoscopy. Two human cases in the same population and the presence of risk factors such as domestic dog ownership and findings of cysts in livers of hunted animals (such as Cuniculus and Dasyprocta sp.) reported by indigenous informants, suggest active transmission in the Upper Orinoco basin and forested areas of the Venezuelan Guayana. These are the first reported cases of polycystic hydatid disease of the Yanomami ethnic group.

A comparative epidemiological study of hepatitis B and hepatitis D virus infections in Yanomami and Piaroa Amerindians of Amazonas State, Venezuela.

OBJECTIVES: To report the prevalences of hepatitis B (HBV) and hepatitis D (HDV) infections in remote and more accessible Yanomami and Piaroa Venezuelan Amazonian Amerindian populations; to estimate incidence per susceptible. METHODS: Clinico-epidemiological evaluation was carried out in 9 Piaroa villages. Blood samples were tested for HBV core antibody (anti-HBc), surface antigen (HBsAg) and HDV antibody (anti-HDV). Results were analysed using logistic regression, and estimates made of HBV forces of infection (FOI). Prevalences and FOI were also estimated for 4 Yanomami villages. RESULTS: Mean Piaroa anti-HBc and HBsAg prevalences were 27.4% and 5.1%, respectively (up to 53% and 19% in the remote Autana region). Mean Yanomami anti-HBc and HBsAg prevalences were, respectively, 58.0% (range 43-70%) and 14.3% (31% in the village with highest HBsAg). No significant difference was found between sexes, with age and maternal HBsAg the only risk factors for HBV identified in multivariate regression of Piaroa data. Only 4 Piaroa and 2 Yanomami individuals were anti-HDV positive. CONCLUSION: Piaroa HBV prevalences were generally higher in remote villages than in less remote ones, with prevalences in Yanomami villages even higher. Anti-HBc prevalence was 47% in one Yanomami village with a history of HBV vaccination but no HBsAg cases were identified, suggestive of previously cleared or possibly transient infection or vaccine escape. Despite a past history of HDV epidemic outbreaks and HBsAg levels in some villages appearing sufficient to facilitate HDV transmission, anti-HDV prevalence was low; it remains to be established why no recent outbreaks have been reported.

Vector competence of Simulium oyapockense s.l. and S. incrustatum for Onchocerca volvulus: Implications for ivermectin-based control in the Amazonian focus of human onchocerciasis, a multi-vector-host system.

Although it is now well established that in the Amazonian onchocerciasis focus, straddling between Venezuela and Brazil, the main vectors in the highland (hyperendemic) and lowland (hypoendemic) areas, are respectively Simulium guianense sensu lato Wise and S. oyapockense s.l. Floch and Abonnenc, investigation of the vectorial role of a third anthropophagic species, Simulium incrustatum Lutz has remained inconclusive. Here we compare the vector competence of S. incrustatum with that of S. oyapockense s.l. by conducting, in the Venezuelan part of the focus, a series of feeding experiments designed to analyze their relative: (a) microfilarial intakes when fed upon the same skin load; (b) proportions of microfilariae (mf) surviving damage inflicted by the cibarial armature (present in both species); and (c) infective (L3) larval outputs. Although the ability of S. oyapockense s.l. to ingest mf, for a given microfilaridermia, was markedly higher than that of S. incrustatum, the (density-dependent) proportions of those ingested mf that were damaged by the armature were also consistently higher, with the resulting output of L3 larvae being significantly lower in S. oyapockense s.l. than in S. incrustatum. These results indicate that S. incrustatum plays a more important role in onchocerciasis transmission in the Amazonian focus than previously realized. We discuss the implications of our findings for the control and elimination of onchocerciasis with mass administration of ivermectin in this focus, where the three main anthropophagic species often co-occur.

Hyperreactive malarial splenomegaly is associated with low levels of antibodies against red blood cell and Plasmodium falciparum derived glycolipids in Yanomami Amerindians from Venezuela.

The immunological basis of the aberrant immune response in hyperreactive malarial splenomegaly (HMS) is poorly understood, but believed to be associated with polyclonal B cell activation by an unidentified malaria mitogen, leading to unregulated immunoglobulin and autoantibody production. HMS has been previously reported in Yanomami communities in the Upper Orinoco region of the Venezuelan Amazon. To investigate a possible association between antibody responses against Plasmodium falciparum and uninfected red blood cell (URBC) glycolipids and splenomegaly, a direct comparison of the parasite versus host anti-glycolipid antibody responses was made in an isolated community of this area. The anti-P. falciparum glycolipid (Pfglp) response was IgG3 dominated, whereas the uninfected red blood cell glycolipid (URBCglp) response showed a predominance of IgG1. The levels of IgG1 against Pfglp, and of IgG4 and IgM against URBCglp were significantly higher in women, while the anti-Pfglp or URBCglp IgM levels were inversely correlated with the degree of splenomegaly. Overall, these results suggest differential regulation of anti-parasite and autoreactive responses and that these responses may be linked to the development and evolution of HMS in this population exposed to endemic malaria. The high mortality rates associated with HMS point out that its early diagnosis together with the implementation of malaria control measures in these isolated Amerindian communities are a priority.

La oncocercosis humana en el foco amazónico / Human onchocerciasis in the Amazonian focus

En este artículo se describe la oncocercosis humana, la cual afecta al pueblo Yanomami en el foco amazónico del sur de Venezuela y se revisa el conocimiento actualizado de la enfermedad y su control. La epidemiología de esta infección parasitaria (causada por Onchocerca volvulus ), y transmitida por insectos simúlidos, es altamente dependiente de las características ambientales y entomológicas prevalecientes en la región, determinadas por gradientes altitudinales, vegetacionales, y geológicos que inciden en la distribución y severidad de la endemia. Asimismo, las características socioculturales y demográ ficas del pueblo Yanomami juegan un papel importante en la exposición al vector y en los niveles de transmisión del parásito. Las comunidades con mayor intensidad de infección y transmisión(hiperendémicas), son aquellas situadas a mayor altura, caracterizadas por elevadas cargas parasitarias, lesiones dermatológicas y oculares, además de una profunda supresión de la respuesta inmunológica frente a antígenos del parásito y otros. La proporción de comunidades hiperendémicas alcanza el 60 por ciento de las estratificadas hasta el momento, pero los mapas de riesgo generados usando sistemas de información geográfica sugieren que esta proporción puede ser aún más elevada. El programa de eliminación de la oncocercosis se basa en la distribución masiva bianual de ivermectina al 85% de la población elegible, y a pesar de las dificultades en el logro de esta meta, principalmente debido a la ubicación remota de las comunidades, el impacto de varias rondas de tratamiento permite aseverar que ha habido una mejoría de los indicadores parasitológicos y clínicos en la población Yanomami incorporada al programa. Finalmente, se discuten algunos lineamientos actuales dentro de la vigilancia epidemiológica y se reseñan nuevas opciones terapéuticas para el control de la oncocercosis.

Influencia del tipo de vivienda y del tamaño de asentamiento de comunidades indígenas Piaroa: en la transmisión de helmintos intestinales / It influences of the housing type and of the size of establishment of indigenous communities Piaroa: in the transmission of intestinal helmintos

Se evaluó la situación de algunas helmintiasis intestinales entre los índios Piaroa, del Estado Amazonas, Venezuela, una sociedad cuyos patrones de vivienda y asentamiento han cambiado an años recientes. Se compararon comunidades que habitan dos tipos de vivienda diferentes; aquellas con residencia principal de paredes de barro, techo de paja y piso de tierra (vivienda indígena), situadas río arriba y consideradas como menos aculturadas, contra aquellas comunidades con viviendas de paredes de bloques, techo de zinc y piso de cemento (vivienda occidental) situadas a orilla de carretera o río abajo, y consideradas como más aculturadas. Una muestra de heces de cada individuo fue recolectada en cada comunidad y conservada en solución de Raillet y Henry para análisis posterior. Se encontró mayor frecuencia de individuos parasitados por Anguilostomos asociada al tipo de vivienda indígena, pero con bajos niveles de infección. Para A. lumbricoides no se encontró asociación entre el tipo de vivienda y presencia de T. trichiura. Los habitantes de vivienda tipo occidental presentan mayores cargas parasitarias, indistintamente del helminto. A mayor tamaño de la comunidad aumentan las cargas parasitarias y el número de personas infectadas. Los resultados indican que la introducción de cambios en hábitos y costumbres, no acompañados de los hábitos necesarios para su manejo, favorece la transmisión de infecciones parasitarias

Prediction of community prevalence of human onchocerciasis in the Amazonian onchocerciasis focus: Bayesian approach.

OBJECTIVE: To develop a Bayesian hierarchical model for human onchocerciasis with which to explore the factors that influence prevalence of microfilariae in the Amazonian focus of onchocerciasis and predict the probability of any community being at least mesoendemic (>20% prevalence of microfilariae), and thus in need of priority ivermectin treatment. METHODS: Models were developed with data from 732 individuals aged > or =15 years who lived in 29 Yanomami communities along four rivers of the south Venezuelan Orinoco basin. The models' abilities to predict prevalences of microfilariae in communities were compared. The deviance information criterion, Bayesian P-values, and residual values were used to select the best model with an approximate cross-validation procedure. FINDINGS: A three-level model that acknowledged clustering of infection within communities performed best, with host age and sex included at the individual level, a river-dependent altitude effect at the community level, and additional clustering of communities along rivers. This model correctly classified 25/29 (86%) villages with respect to their need for priority ivermectin treatment. CONCLUSION: Bayesian methods are a flexible and useful approach for public health research and control planning. Our model acknowledges the clustering of infection within communities, allows investigation of links between individual- or community-specific characteristics and infection, incorporates additional uncertainty due to missing covariate data, and informs policy decisions by predicting the probability that a new community is at least mesoendemic.

Evaluation of the double diffusion, enzyme immunoassay and immunoblotting techniques, for the diagnosis of human hydatid disease in tropical areas

La hidatidosis en areas tropicales representa un serio problema diagnostico por la alta frecuencia de reactividad cruzada con otras infecciones helminticas. Las tecnicas de immunoensayo (ELISA) y doble difusion arco 5 (DD5) mostraron una sensibilidad de 73 y 57 per cent y una especificidad de 84-95 per cent y 100 per cent, respectivamente. La especificidad en la tecnica de ELISA, fue mejorada sustancialmente al emplear como diluyente de los sueros una solucion buffer conteniendo suero ovino normal y fosforilcolina. En liquido obtenido de hidatides de Echinococcus granulosus de origen ovino, se demostraron tres bandas de origen proteico de 64, 58 y 30 KDa de peso molecular, empleando SDS e inmunoblotting....

Paludismo en Santa Elena de Uairen Estado Bolívar / Paludism in Santa Elena de Uairen Bolivar State

El presente trabajo comprende la revisión retrospectiva de 215 casos de Paludismo hospitalizados en el Hospital Central Tipo 1 de Santa Elena de Uairen (Edo. Bolívar, Venezuela), durante los años 1989/1990. Se detectaron 78 casos de Paludismo en 1989 y 137 casos en 1990. Se observó un neto predominio de la en fermedad en sujetos jóvenes masculinos. Los síntomas más frecuentes fueron fiebre, escalofrios y cefalea; los signos predominantes fiebre, palodez mucotánea y hepatoesplenomegalia. La forma parasitaria dominante fue Plasmodium vivax en 1989 (60,25//) y Plasmodium falciparum en 1990 (57,66//). Del total de pacientes (0,46//) por encefalopatía palúdica. Se analiza y discute la significación en los cambios observados de un año a otro, tanto en el número de casos y fórmula parasitaria como en la presentación clínica e incidencia de complicaciones

La oncocercosis en América / The onchocerciasis in América

Las comunicaciones científicas presentadas en el Seminario hacen enfoque de las peculiaridades epidemiológicas, inmunológicas y parasitológicas de la oncocercosis en América. Incluye revisión de los progresos efectuados en el campo de la terapéutica, análisis de la relación riesgo/beneficios generados por el uso de la quimioterapia. Reseña las opiniones y conceptos de especialistas de los 6 paises Latinoamericanos donde la oncocercosis existe en forma endemica, así como también de los expertos de Francia, Inglaterra y OMS, quienes examinaron la información disponible sobre las manifestaciones de la helmintiasis en el Continente Americano