Gender patterns of tuberculosis testing and disease in South Africa.

SETTING: In South Africa, tuberculosis (TB) has been the leading cause of death for over a decade. The TB incidence rate is the second highest in the world, and continues to rise. OBJECTIVE: To examine gender patterns in South Africa's TB epidemic. This is one of the first studies to use National Health Laboratory Service (NHLS) data to evaluate the epidemic at the national level. DESIGN: Observational study using NHLS retrospective data for every TB test performed in public health facilities between 2009 and 2011. RESULTS: Despite an increase in the number of TB tests performed, the number of TB cases remained relatively constant. Although prevalence rates differ between health districts, we find a similar female-to-male ratio (0.70) in each district. The age profile for TB resembles that of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), with peak TB prevalence in women occurring 7 years earlier than in men. The female-to-male ratio of TB cases and 3+ positive (severe) cases decreases rapidly between ages 25 and 35 years. CONCLUSION: These age and gender patterns are driven by the HIV epidemic and risks associated with pregnancy and childbearing. Increasing the quality and quantity of active TB case finding at existing points of care would be a sustainable and cost-effective intervention for both treatment and prevention.

The effect of preferential paw usage on dogs' (Canis familiaris) performance in a manipulative problem-solving task.

In a number of species, individuals showing lateralized hand/paw usage (i.e. the preferential use of either the right or left paw) compared to ambilateral individuals have been shown to be more proactive in novel situations. In the current study we used an established test to assess preferential paw usage in dogs (the Kong test) and then compared the performance of ambilateral and lateralized dogs as well as left- vs. right-pawed dogs in a novel manipulative problem solving task. Results showed an equal proportion of ambilateral and lateralized dogs but contrary to predictions non-lateralized dogs were faster at accessing the apparatus in test trials. No differences emerged between right- and left-pawed dogs. Results are discussed in relation to previous studies on lateralization.

Relationship between paw preference strength and noise phobia in Canis familiaris.

The authors investigated the relationship between degree of lateralization and noise phobia in 48 domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) by scoring paw preference to hold a food object and relating it to reactivity to the sounds of thunderstorms and fireworks, measured by playback and a questionnaire. The dogs without a significant paw preference were significantly more reactive to the sounds than the dogs with either a left-paw or right-paw preference. Intense reactivity, therefore, is associated with a weaker strength of cerebral lateralization. The authors note the similarity between their finding and the weaker hand preferences shown in humans suffering extreme levels of anxiety and suggest neural mechanisms that may be involved.