RESUMEN
Microplastics (MPs) and microfibers (MFs) in stormwater have been poorly investigated. Data on their intra and inter rain events variability over time are still sparse. For the first time, the variability of microlitter concentrations in stormwater has been studied. MF and MP concentrations were investigated in stormwater runoff at the outlet of the suburban catchment at Sucy-en-Brie (a suburb of Paris, France), during four rain events. Median MF and MP concentrations were 1.9 and 29 items/L, with an interquartile range of 2.3 and 36 items/L, respectively (N = 18). A different pattern was observed between MFs and MPs. While no relationship or trends were observed for MFs, the highest MP concentrations were observed before the flow rate peak of the rain events. This could indicate a difference in the behaviour between MFs and MPs. We estimated the median MP mass concentration to be 56 µg/L with an interquartile range of 194 µg/L, whereas the mass concentration of macroplastics was estimated to be 31 µg/L with an interquartile range of 22 µg/L at the same sampling site, in a previous study. For this sampling site, MPs and macroplastics have the same order of magnitude. This study may have strong implications on microplastic assessment in urban waters.
Asunto(s)
Microplásticos , Contaminantes Químicos del Agua , Monitoreo del Ambiente , Plásticos , Lluvia , Movimientos del Agua , Contaminantes Químicos del Agua/análisisRESUMEN
Stormwater possibly represents a significant input for plastic debris in the environment; however, the quantification and composition of plastic debris and other macrolitter in stormwater are not available in literature and the amounts discharged into freshwater have been poorly investigated. To obtain a better understanding, the occurrence, abundance, and composition of the macrolitter in screened materials from stormwater were investigated at a small residential suburban catchment (Sucy-en-Brie, France) in Greater Paris. The macrolitter, particularly the plastic debris, was sorted, weighed, and classified based on the OSPAR methodology. On average, plastics accounted for at least 62% in number and for 53% of the mass of all the anthropogenic waste found in the screened materials. The most common items were plastic bags or films, crisp or sweet packets, cigarette butts, plastic fragments of unknown origin, garbage bags or garbage bag strings, foil wrappers, tampon applicators, plastic cups, and medical items such as bandages. Plastic debris concentrations in runoff water ranged between 7 and 134 mg/m3 (i.e. 0.4-1.7 kg.yr-1.ha-1 or 4.8-18.8 g.yr-1.cap-1). When extrapolated to the Greater Paris area, the estimated amount of plastic debris discarded into the environment through untreated stormwater of separate sewer systems ranges from 8 to 33 tons.yr-1.
Asunto(s)
Plásticos , Contaminantes Químicos del Agua , Monitoreo del Ambiente , Francia , Paris , Residuos/análisis , Contaminantes Químicos del Agua/análisisRESUMEN
[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1155/2016/6587825.].
RESUMEN
Gut microbiota plays a key role in the maintenance of homeostasis and host physiology, comprising development, metabolism, and immunity. Profiling the composition and the gastrointestinal microbiome with a reliable methodology is of substantial interest to yield new insights into the pathogenesis of many diseases as well as defining new prophylactic and therapeutic interventions. Here, we briefly present our methodology applied to fecal samples from mice and then further extended to the samples from a cat and a single human subject at 4 different time points as examples to illustrate the methodological strengths. Both interindividual and time-related variations are demonstrated and discussed.
RESUMEN
Although the heavy metals cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) are known environmental health concerns, their long-term impacts on gut ecology and susceptibility to gastrointestinal autoimmune diseases have not been extensively investigated. We sought to determine whether subchronic oral exposure to Cd or Pb is a risk factor for the development and progression of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Mice were exposed to various doses of CdCl2 or PbCl2 in drinking water for 1, 4 or 6 weeks prior to infection with Salmonella, the induction of colitis with dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) or trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS). In human cell-based models, exposure to Cd and Pb is associated with reduced transepithelial electric resistance and changes in bacteria-induced cytokine responses. Although 1- and 6-week exposures did not have clear effects on the response to Salmonella infectious challenges, 1-week short-term treatments with CdCl2 tended to enhance intestinal inflammation in mice. Unexpectedly, subchronic exposure to Cd and (to a lesser extent) Pb significantly mitigated some of the symptoms of DSS-induced colitis and reduced the severity of TNBS colitis in a dose-dependent manner. The possible adaptive and immunosuppressive mechanisms by which heavy metals might reduce intestinal inflammation are explored and discussed.
Asunto(s)
Cadmio/efectos adversos , Colitis/etiología , Susceptibilidad a Enfermedades , Plomo/efectos adversos , Metales Pesados/efectos adversos , Administración Oral , Animales , Cadmio/administración & dosificación , Colitis/patología , Sulfato de Dextran/efectos adversos , Modelos Animales de Enfermedad , Femenino , Sistema Inmunológico/citología , Sistema Inmunológico/efectos de los fármacos , Sistema Inmunológico/inmunología , Inmunomodulación/efectos de los fármacos , Mucosa Intestinal/efectos de los fármacos , Mucosa Intestinal/patología , Plomo/administración & dosificación , Metales Pesados/administración & dosificación , Ratones , Infecciones por Salmonella/complicaciones , Infecciones por Salmonella/microbiología , Salmonella typhimurium , Factores de Tiempo , Ácido Trinitrobencenosulfónico/efectos adversosRESUMEN
SCOPE: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) constitutes a growing public health concern in western countries. Bacteria with anti-inflammatory properties are lacking in the dysbiosis accompanying IBD. Selected strains of probiotic bacteria with anti-inflammatory properties accordingly alleviate symptoms and enhance treatment of ulcerative colitis in clinical trials. Such properties are also found in selected strains of dairy starters such as Propionibacterium freudenreichii and Lactobacillus delbrueckii (Ld). We thus investigated the possibility to develop a fermented dairy product, combining both starter and probiotic abilities of both lactic acid and propionic acid bacteria, designed to extend remissions in IBD patients. METHODS AND RESULTS: We developed a single-strain Ld-fermented milk and a two-strain P. freudenreichii and Ld-fermented experimental pressed cheese using strains previously selected for their anti-inflammatory properties. Consumption of these experimental fermented dairy products protected mice against trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid induced colitis, alleviating severity of symptoms, modulating local and systemic inflammation, as well as colonic oxidative stress and epithelial cell damages. As a control, the corresponding sterile dairy matrix failed to afford such protection. CONCLUSION: This work reveals the probiotic potential of this bacterial mixture, in the context of fermented dairy products. It opens new perspectives for the reverse engineering development of anti-inflammatory fermented foods designed for target populations with IBD, and has provided evidences leading to an ongoing pilot clinical study in ulcerative colitis patients.
Asunto(s)
Queso/microbiología , Microbioma Gastrointestinal , Lactobacillus delbrueckii/inmunología , Probióticos/farmacología , Propionibacterium freudenreichii/inmunología , Animales , Antiinflamatorios no Esteroideos/farmacología , Biomarcadores/sangre , Biomarcadores/metabolismo , Peso Corporal/efectos de los fármacos , Colitis/inducido químicamente , Colitis/prevención & control , Colon/efectos de los fármacos , Colon/patología , Femenino , Fermentación , Lactobacillus delbrueckii/genética , Ratones Endogámicos BALB C , Estrés Oxidativo/efectos de los fármacos , Propionibacterium freudenreichii/genética , Ácido Trinitrobencenosulfónico/toxicidadRESUMEN
Dairy propionibacteria (PAB) are used as a ripening starter in combination with Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) for dairy products such as Swiss-type cheese. LAB and PAB have also been studied for their probiotic properties but little is still known about their individual and/or synergistic beneficial effects within dairy matrices. In the context of a rising incidence of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, it has become crucial to evaluate the immunomodulatory potential of bacteria ingested in large numbers via dairy products. We therefore selected different strains and combinations of technological LAB and PAB. We determined their immunomodulatory potential by IL-10 and IL-12 induction, in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells, on either single or mixed cultures, grown on laboratory medium or directly in milk. Milk was fermented with selected anti-inflammatory strains of LAB or PAB/LAB mixed cultures and the resulting bacterial fractions were also evaluated for these properties, together with starter viability and optimum technological aspects. The most promising fermented milks were evaluated in the context of TNBS- or DSS-induced colitis in mice. The improvement in inflammatory parameters evidenced an alleviation of colitis symptoms as a result of fermented milk consumption. This effect was clearly strain-dependent and modulated by growth within a fermented dairy product. These findings offer new tools and perspectives for the development of immunomodulatory fermented dairy products for targeted populations.
Asunto(s)
Productos Lácteos Cultivados/inmunología , Productos Lácteos Cultivados/microbiología , Inmunomodulación , Lactobacillaceae/fisiología , Propionibacterium/fisiología , Animales , Humanos , Enfermedades Inflamatorias del Intestino/terapia , Interleucina-10/biosíntesis , Interleucina-10/inmunología , Interleucina-12/biosíntesis , Interleucina-12/inmunología , Lactobacillaceae/inmunología , Leucocitos Mononucleares/inmunología , Ratones , Probióticos/metabolismo , Propionibacterium/inmunologíaRESUMEN
The beneficial effects of carbohydrate-derived fibers are mainly attributed to modulation of the microbiota, increased colonic fermentation, and the production of short-chain fatty acids. We studied the direct immune responses to alimentary fibers in in vitro and in vivo models. Firstly, we evaluated the immunomodulation induced by nine different types of low-digestible fibers on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. None of the fibers tested induced cytokine production in baseline conditions. However, only one from all fibers almost completely inhibited the production of anti- and proinflammatory cytokines induced by bacteria. Secondly, the impact of short- (five days) and long-term (three weeks) oral treatments with selected fibers was assessed in the trinitrobenzene-sulfonic acid colitis model in mice. The immunosuppressive fiber significantly reduced levels of inflammatory markers over both treatment periods, whereas a nonimmunomodulatory fiber had no effect. The two fibers did not differ in terms of the observed fermentation products and colonic microbiota after three weeks of treatment, suggesting that the anti-inflammatory action was not related to prebiotic properties. Hence, we observed a direct effect of a specific fiber on the murine immune system. This intrinsic, fiber-dependent immunomodulatory potential may extend prebiotic-mediated protection in inflammatory bowel disease.
Asunto(s)
Colitis/dietoterapia , Carbohidratos de la Dieta/administración & dosificación , Fibras de la Dieta/administración & dosificación , Inflamación/dietoterapia , Prebióticos/administración & dosificación , Animales , Antiinflamatorios/administración & dosificación , Colitis/inducido químicamente , Colitis/inmunología , Femenino , Humanos , Inmunomodulación/efectos de los fármacos , Inflamación/inducido químicamente , Inflamación/inmunología , Mucosa Intestinal/efectos de los fármacos , Mucosa Intestinal/inmunología , Leucocitos Mononucleares/efectos de los fármacos , Leucocitos Mononucleares/inmunología , RatonesRESUMEN
Do food ecosystems feed gut ecosystems? And if so fuel the immune system? Recent developments in metagenomics have provided researchers tools to open the "black box" of microbiome science. These novel technologies have enabled the establishment of correlations between dysbiotic microbial communities and many diseases. The complex interaction of the commensal microbiota with the immune system is a topic of substantial interest due to its relevance to health. The human gastrointestinal tract is composed of an immense number of resident and transient microorganisms. Both may play a direct and vital role in the maintenance of human health and well-being. An understanding of the interactions and mechanisms through which commensal and food-derived microbes shape host immunity and metabolism may yield new insights into the pathogenesis of many immune-mediated diseases. Consequently, by manipulating the contribution of food microbiota to the functionality of the gut ecosystem, there is great hope for development of new prophylactic and therapeutic interventions. This paper presents some insights and comments on the possible impact of exogenous fermented food microbes on the gut homeostasis. We shed light on the similar features shared by both fermented food microbes and probiotics. In particular, the key role of microbial strains as part of food ecosystems for health and diseases is discussed through the prism of fermented dairy products and gut inflammation.
Asunto(s)
Colitis/microbiología , Microbiología de Alimentos , Microbioma Gastrointestinal , Tracto Gastrointestinal/microbiología , Queso/microbiología , Homeostasis , Humanos , Metagenómica , Probióticos/uso terapéuticoRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: The gut microbiota is critical for intestinal homeostasis. Recent studies have revealed the links between different types of dysbiosis and diseases inside and outside the intestine. Environmental exposure to pollutants (such as heavy metals) can also impair various physiological functions for good health. Here, we studied the impact of up to 8 weeks of oral lead and cadmium ingestion on the composition of the murine intestinal microbiome. RESULTS: Pyrosequencing of 16S RNA sequences revealed minor but specific changes in bacterial commensal communities (at both family and genus levels) following oral exposure to the heavy metals, with notably low numbers of Lachnospiraceae and high numbers levels of Lactobacillaceae and Erysipelotrichaceacae (mainly due to changes in Turicibacter spp), relative to control animals. CONCLUSIONS: Non-absorbed heavy metals have a direct impact on the gut microbiota. In turn, this may impact the alimentary tract and overall gut homeostasis. Our results may enable more accurate assessment of the risk of intestinal disease associated with heavy metal ingestion.
Asunto(s)
Cadmio/toxicidad , Ciego/efectos de los fármacos , Ecotoxicología , Intoxicación por Metales Pesados , Plomo/toxicidad , Microbiota/efectos de los fármacos , Intoxicación/etiología , Animales , Ciego/microbiología , Electroforesis en Gel de Gradiente Desnaturalizante , Heces/microbiología , Femenino , Lactobacillaceae/genética , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos BALB C , Microbiota/genética , Intoxicación/microbiología , ARN Ribosómico 16S/genéticaRESUMEN
Environmental exposure to pollutants such as heavy metal(s) is responsible for various altered physiological functions which are detrimental for health. The gut microbiota is critical for intestinal homeostasis but its role on xenobiotic handling is not fully understood, especially when continuous sub-chronic exposure is addressed. We first confirmed the essential role of the intestinal microbiome to limit heavy metal body burden by using germ-free mice following 6-weeks oral exposure. Significant increases of cadmium and lead absorption and dissemination in blood and target organs were measured in germ-free mice when compared with conventional specific pathogen free (SPF) mice. Besides the "barrier" function of the luminal microbiota, this may involve specific host-genes such as metallothioneins, which are differentially expressed in the gastrointestinal tract of each group of mice. Considering genes relevant for divalent metal transporters and oxidative pathways, significant differences in basal gene expression were measured between control and germ-free mice. Moreover, the magnitude of induction of these genes upon stimulation by heavy metals varied greatly depending on the dose and type of metal as well as the microbial status of the animal. Collectively, these data illustrate the complex host-microbes interplay occurring with environmental pollutants inside the gut.
Asunto(s)
Intoxicación por Cadmio/prevención & control , Contaminantes Ambientales/toxicidad , Intestinos/microbiología , Intoxicación por Plomo/prevención & control , Administración Oral , Animales , Cloruro de Cadmio/administración & dosificación , Cloruro de Cadmio/análisis , Cloruro de Cadmio/farmacocinética , Cloruro de Cadmio/toxicidad , Intoxicación por Cadmio/sangre , Intoxicación por Cadmio/metabolismo , Intoxicación por Cadmio/microbiología , Relación Dosis-Respuesta a Droga , Contaminantes Ambientales/administración & dosificación , Contaminantes Ambientales/análisis , Contaminantes Ambientales/farmacocinética , Heces/química , Femenino , Regulación de la Expresión Génica/efectos de los fármacos , Vida Libre de Gérmenes , Bacterias Gramnegativas/crecimiento & desarrollo , Bacterias Grampositivas/crecimiento & desarrollo , Absorción Intestinal , Mucosa Intestinal/metabolismo , Intestinos/efectos de los fármacos , Plomo/administración & dosificación , Plomo/análisis , Plomo/farmacocinética , Plomo/toxicidad , Intoxicación por Plomo/sangre , Intoxicación por Plomo/metabolismo , Intoxicación por Plomo/microbiología , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos C57BL , Organismos Libres de Patógenos Específicos , Distribución TisularRESUMEN
Chronic ingestion of environmental heavy metals such as lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) causes various well-documented pathologies in specific target organs following their intestinal absorption and subsequent accumulation. However, little is known about the direct impact of the non-absorbed heavy metals on the small intestine and the colon homeostasis. The aim of our study was to compare the specific bioaccumulation and retention of Cd and Pb and their effect on the essential metal balance in primary organs, with those occurring specifically in the gastrointestinal tract of mice. Various doses of Cd (5, 20 and 100 mg l(-1)) and Pb (100 and 500 mg l(-1)) chloride salts were provided in drinking water for subchronic to chronic exposures (4, 8 and 12 weeks). In contrast to a clear dose- and time-dependent accumulation in target organs, results showed that intestines are poor accumulators for Cd and Pb. Notwithstanding, changes in gene expression of representative intestinal markers revealed that the transport-, oxidative- and inflammatory status of the gut epithelium of the duodenum, ileum and colon were specifically affected by both heavy metal species. Additionally, in vivo comet assay used to evaluate the impact of heavy metals on DNA damage showed clear genotoxic activities of Cd, on both the upper and distal parts of the gastrointestinal tract. Altogether, these results outline the resilience of the gut which balances the various effects of chronic Cd and Pb in the intestinal mucosa. Collectively, it provides useful information for the risk assessment of heavy metals in gut homeostasis and further disease's susceptibility.
Asunto(s)
Cloruro de Cadmio/toxicidad , Intestinos/efectos de los fármacos , Plomo/toxicidad , Metales Pesados/toxicidad , Animales , Disponibilidad Biológica , Cloruro de Cadmio/administración & dosificación , Cloruro de Cadmio/farmacocinética , Daño del ADN/efectos de los fármacos , Relación Dosis-Respuesta a Droga , Femenino , Tracto Gastrointestinal/efectos de los fármacos , Tracto Gastrointestinal/metabolismo , Regulación de la Expresión Génica/efectos de los fármacos , Absorción Intestinal , Mucosa Intestinal/efectos de los fármacos , Mucosa Intestinal/metabolismo , Plomo/administración & dosificación , Plomo/farmacocinética , Metales Pesados/administración & dosificación , Metales Pesados/farmacocinética , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos BALB C , Mutágenos/administración & dosificación , Mutágenos/farmacocinética , Mutágenos/toxicidad , Factores de Tiempo , Distribución TisularRESUMEN
BACKGROUND & AIMS: Reducing symptoms of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) by dietary supplements represents more than ever an attractive clinical approach. Since the use of spore forming bacteria may offer interesting advantages, the aim of the study was to address the anti-inflammatory potential of Bacillus >subtilis strain PB6 (ATCC - PTA 6737) spores, provided as a powder preparation. METHODS: The immunomodulatory potential of strain PB6 was first characterized in vitro on human immunocompetent cells for both the commercial spore powder (Anaban™) and two phenotypic variants of the vegetative form. Assessment of the in vivo anti-inflammatory capacity of the standard spore powder and a variant spore powder preparation was performed using a mouse model of acute, TNBS-induced colitis. Performance was compared with the drug prednisolone, and was based on blinded macroscopic and histological scores, blood inflammatory markers and measurements of infiltration of mucosal neutrophils. RESULTS: Strain PB6 induced substantial levels of IL-10 but very low levels of IL-12, TNFα and IFNγ on human PBMC. Both spore powders prevented colitis as shown by significant reductions of near all inflammatory read-outs. CONCLUSION: B. subtilis strain PB6, provided as a preparation of spores, shows pre-clinical anti-inflammatory effects, suggesting further evaluation in a clinical intervention trial, e.g. with IBD type patients.
Asunto(s)
Antiinflamatorios/administración & dosificación , Bacillus subtilis , Colitis/prevención & control , Probióticos/administración & dosificación , Animales , Peso Corporal , Línea Celular , Colitis/inducido químicamente , Colitis/patología , Modelos Animales de Enfermedad , Humanos , Enfermedades Inflamatorias del Intestino/microbiología , Enfermedades Inflamatorias del Intestino/prevención & control , Interferón gamma/sangre , Interleucina-10/sangre , Interleucina-12/sangre , Leucocitos Mononucleares/metabolismo , Leucocitos Mononucleares/microbiología , Ratones , Neutrófilos/patología , Proteína Amiloide A Sérica/análisis , Esporas Bacterianas , Ácido Trinitrobencenosulfónico/efectos adversos , Factor de Necrosis Tumoral alfa/sangreRESUMEN
Immunomodulatory properties of 10 dairy propionibacteria, analyzed on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), revealed a highly strain-dependent induction of anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin 10 (IL-10). Two selected strains of Propionibacterium freudenreichii showed a protective effect against two models of colitis in mice, suggesting a probiotic potential predicted by immune-based selection criteria for these cheese starter bacteria.
Asunto(s)
Factores Inmunológicos/farmacología , Probióticos/farmacología , Propionibacterium/inmunología , Propionibacterium/fisiología , Animales , Células Cultivadas , Colitis/prevención & control , Modelos Animales de Enfermedad , Humanos , Interleucina-10/metabolismo , Leucocitos Mononucleares/inmunología , Leucocitos Mononucleares/microbiología , RatonesRESUMEN
The widely used probiotic bacteria belong to the genera Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium and have in most cases been isolated from the human gastrointestinal tract. However, other "less conventional" bacteria, from allochthonous or extremophilic origin, sharing similar structural or functional features, may also confer specific health benefits to a host. Firstly, we explored the in vitro immuno-modulatory or immune-stimulatory activities of 25 wine lactic acid bacteria belonging to Oenococcus oeni and Pediococcus parvulus. While cytokines released by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) stimulated by P. parvulus strains, showed little variation, O. oeni strains induced strain-specific cytokine patterns. Some O. oeni strains were then further analyzed under various conditions for growth, dose and culture medium. In a second phase, we evaluated the oral tolerance and safety of two strains of O. oeni in mice fed a high dose of bacteria for a week. Finally, evidence was gathered on the in vivo anti-inflammatory potential of a selected O. oeni strain using an experimental 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis mouse model. Although results did not match the anti-inflammatory levels obtained with certain conventional probiotics, strain IOEB 9115 significantly lowered colonic injury and alleviated colitis symptoms. The 'natural' tolerance towards acid, ethanol, and phenolic compounds of O. oeni strains combined with a measureable immunomodulatory potential, suggest a possible use of selected strains isolated from wine as live probiotics.
Asunto(s)
Colitis/inmunología , Colitis/terapia , Inmunomodulación , Oenococcus/inmunología , Probióticos/uso terapéutico , Animales , Células Cultivadas , Colitis/microbiología , Citocinas/sangre , Citocinas/inmunología , Modelos Animales de Enfermedad , Femenino , Humanos , Leucocitos Mononucleares/inmunología , Leucocitos Mononucleares/microbiología , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos BALB C , Oenococcus/aislamiento & purificación , Pediococcus/inmunología , Pediococcus/aislamiento & purificación , Probióticos/administración & dosificación , Vino/microbiologíaRESUMEN
Kynurenic acid (KA) is an endogenous glutamate receptor antagonist at the level of the different ionotropic glutamate receptors. One of the enzymes responsible for the production of KA, kynurenine aminotransferase I (KATI), also catalyses the reversible transamination of glutamine to oxoglutaramic acid (GTK, EC 2.6.1.15). The enzyme exists in a cytosolic and in a mitochondrial form because of the presence of two different KATI mRNAs coding for a protein respectively with and without leader sequence targeting the protein into mitochondria. We have cloned from a phage library of rat kidney cDNA four new KATI cDNAs containing different 5' untranslated regions (UTRs). One of the transcripts (+14KATI cDNA) contains an alternative site of initiation of translation. The tissue distribution of the different transcripts was studied by RT-PCR. The study demonstrated that several KATI mRNAs are constitutively expressed in ubiquitous manner, while +14KATI mRNA is present only in kidney. The translational efficiency of the different transcripts was studied in vitro and enzymatic activities were measured in transiently transfected Cos-1 cells. Each KATI mRNA exhibits a different in vitro translational efficiency, which corresponds to different levels of KAT enzymatic activity in transfected cells. Both findings correlate with the predicted accessibility of the ribosomal binding sites of the different mRNAs. The structure of the rat KATI/GTK gene was also studied. The expression of several KATI mRNAs with different 5'UTRs represents an interesting example of transcriptional/translational control on the expression of pyridoxal phosphate (PLP)-dependent aminotransferases.