Profile of Sofosbuvir and Velpatasvir Combination in the Treatment of Chronic Hepatitis C in Children and Adolescents: Current Evidence.

Chronic hepatitis C (HCV) affects up to 3.25 million children and adolescents. Early treatment of HCV in children and adolescents reduces progression to advanced liver disease and cancer. Treatment for HCV has evolved to highly effective direct acting antiviral therapy in adults and now in children ≥3 years of age. This review focuses on the role of sofosbuvir and velpatasvir (SOF/VEL), a newer treatment of children and adolescents with chronic HCV. SOF/VEL is a pangenotypic DAA with primary clearance via the liver and biliary excretion. It has been studied in children and adolescents and is approved in the US for use in children and adolescents ≥3 years of age. Although the data are currently limited, SOF/VEL has demonstrated sustained viral response rates similar to comparable DAAs in the range of 95-98%. To date, side effects have been minimal.

Congenital Portosystemic Shunts: Variable Clinical Presentations Requiring a Tailored Endovascular or Surgical Approach.

Congenital portosystemic shunts (CPSS) are rare developmental anomalies resulting in diversion of portal flow to the systemic circulation. These shunts allow intestinal blood to reach the systemic circulation directly, and if persistent or large, may lead to long-term complications. CPSS can have a variety of clinical presentations that depend on the substrate that is bypassing hepatic metabolism or the degree of hypoperfusion of the liver. Many intrahepatic shunts spontaneously close by 1 year of age, but extrahepatic and persistent intrahepatic shunts require intervention by a single session or staged closure with a multidisciplinary approach. Early detection and appropriate management are important for a good prognosis. The aim of this case series is to describe the varied clinical presentations, treatment approaches, and outcomes of 5 children with CPSS at our institution. Management of these patients should involve a multidisciplinary team, including interventional radiology, surgery, hepatology, and other medical services as the patient's clinical presentation warrants. Regardless of clinical presentation, if a CPSS persists past 1-2 years of age, closure is recommended.

Implications of attention and executive functioning weaknesses in youth with Fontan circulation.

Youth with Fontan circulation (Fontan) are at-risk for impairments in attention and executive functioning (EF) due to a confluence of genetic, prenatal, surgical, and medical risk factors. We sought to describe attention and EF in this population, measured via standardized performance-based tests and caregiver rating scales. We then examined how weaknesses in attention and EF were related to outcomes in other neurobehavioral domains, including adaptive behavior and academic achievement. Our sample included 93 youth with Fontan who were referred for neuropsychological evaluations as part of standard clinical care. The cohort as a whole measured between 0.18 to 0.99 standard deviations below normative means across domains of attention, EF, academic achievement, and intellectual ability. In addition, caregiver-reported concerns for attention, EF, anxiety, and depression were elevated, and approximately 0.35 to 0.85 standard deviations above normative means. Lastly, caregiver-reported adaptive behavior measured 0.93 to 1.24 standard deviations below normative values. Academic outcomes were differentially affected by demographic and attention/EF variables, while depression and caregiver-reported EF predicted adaptive behavior. Findings from this study underscore the importance of routine neuropsychological evaluation as part of comprehensive, multidisciplinary care for individuals with Fontan, with the goal of enhancing neurobehavioral and functional outcomes across the lifespan.

Successful use of intra-operative continuous renal replacement therapy in pediatric liver transplant recipients: Single center case series.

BACKGROUND: Acute kidney injury (AKI) is common in pediatric patients undergoing liver transplantation (LT), with an incidence 17%-55%. Fluid, metabolic, and acid-base aberrancies are often pronounced pre-operatively and further worsened by events during LT, making intra-operative continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) an option for critically ill LT recipients. METHODS: All pediatric LT performed at our institution who underwent intra-operative CRRT between January 2017 and August 2021 were included. Patient demographics and clinical data including graft outcomes, intra-operative findings, and timing and indications for CRRT were collected from the electronic medical record. RESULTS: CRRT was used in nine of the 76 (12%) pediatric LT performed at our center during the study period. Ages at LT ranged from 39 to 17.7 years. Recipients requiring CRRT were more likely to have acute liver failure, status 1A, and higher calculated MELD/PELD scores. CRRT was initiated pre-transplant in three recipients and continued post-transplant in six recipients. Median duration of CRRT was two (range 0-14) days. Indications included hyperammonemia (3/9), acidosis (3/9), fluid overload (6/9), and hyperkalemia (2/9). The CRRT group had a significantly longer post-transplant intensive care unit length of stay in comparison to those that did not require CRRT (median 6, range 3-40 days vs. median 3, range 0-121 days, p = .02], but there were no significant differences in reoperations, hospital length of stay, or recipient or graft survival. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrate that CRRT can be safely performed in pediatric LT recipients, including young infants through adolescents.

Immediate extubation following pediatric liver transplantation.

BACKGROUND: Immediate extubation (IE) following pediatric liver transplantation is being increasingly performed. The aim of this study was to characterize the rate of IE at our institution and identify recipient factors predictive of IE. METHODS: All pediatric liver transplants performed at our institution between January 1, 2015 and December 31, 2020 were reviewed. Retransplants and multi-organ transplants were excluded. IE was defined as extubation in the operating room following transplant. Backward stepwise logistic regression at a p-value threshold of .05 was performed to identify variables associated with IE. RESULTS: IE was achieved in 58 (72%) of the 81 pediatric liver transplants. The IE cohort had significantly shorter ICU length of stay and overall hospital length of stay, though IE was not an independent predictor of posttransplant length of stay. Age <2 years, preoperative mechanical ventilation, and total intraoperative epinephrine and dopamine infusion requirements were significant, independent risk factors against IE. This multivariable model was highly predictive of IE (area under the curve = 0.89). CONCLUSIONS: We describe the highest rate of IE postpediatric liver transplantation that has been reported to date and identified significant risk factors against successful IE.

Unique Cholangiocyte-Targeted IgM Autoantibodies Correlate With Poor Outcome in Biliary Atresia.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The etiology of biliary atresia (BA) is not known and is likely multifactorial, including a genetic predisposition, a viral or environmental trigger, an aberrant autoimmune response targeting cholangiocytes, and unique susceptibilities of the neonatal bile ducts to injury. Damaged cholangiocytes may express neo self-antigens and elicit autoreactive T-cell-mediated inflammation and B-cell production of autoantibodies. The aim of this study was to discover autoantibodies in BA that correlated with outcomes. APPROACH AND RESULTS: An autoantigen microarray encompassing approximately 9,500 autoantigens was used to screen for serum immunoglobulin M (IgM) and immunoglobulin G (IgG) autoantibodies in patients with BA or other liver disease controls. Validation of candidate autoantibodies by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay on a second cohort of subjects (6-12 months following Kasai portoenterostomy) and correlations of autoantibodies with outcomes were performed (serum bilirubin levels and need for liver transplant in first 2 years of life). Mean anti-chitinase 3-like 1 (CHI3L1), anti-delta-like ligand (DLL-4), and antisurfactant protein D (SFTPD) IgM autoantibodies in BA were significantly higher compared with controls, and IgM autoantibody levels positively correlated with worse outcomes. Immunofluorescence revealed cholangiocyte-predominant expression of CHI3L1, DLL-4, and SFTPD. The humoral autoantibody response was associated with C3d complement activation and T-cell autoimmunity, based on detection of cholangiocyte-predominant C3d co-staining and peripheral blood autoreactive T cells specific to CHI3L1, DLL-4 and SFTPD, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: BA is associated with cholangiocyte-predominant IgM autoantibodies in the first year after Kasai portoenterostomy. Anti-CHI3L1, anti-DLL-4, and anti-SFTPD IgM autoantibody correlations with worse outcomes and the detection of C3d on cholangioctyes and antigen-specific autoreactive T cells suggest that autoimmunity plays a role in the ongoing bile duct injury and progression of disease.

Outcomes of Severe Seronegative Hepatitis-associated Aplastic Anemia: A Pediatric Case Series.

OBJECTIVES: Hepatitis-associated aplastic anemia (HAAA) is a potentially life-threatening diagnosis without clear treatment guidelines. The goal of the study was to characterize the presentation, evaluation, histopathology, and outcomes of therapy in children with HAAA to guide future research and to develop standardized care guidelines for this rare disease. METHODS: Retrospective chart review of 4 patients with HAAA who presented to Children's Hospital Colorado between 2016 and 2019 was conducted. Patient presentation, evaluation, bone marrow and liver pathology, interventions, and clinical course were collected. Immunohistochemistry of liver biopsies was performed. RESULTS: We treated 4 patients with HAAA without liver failure. All had evidence of systemic hyperinflammation and CD8+ T cell predominant liver tissue infiltration. One had a genetic mutation predisposing him to immune-mediated disease, but all other genetic testing was negative. In 3 of the 4 patients, hepatitis was poorly responsive to standard therapy with steroids, azathioprine, or tacrolimus; however, sustained biochemical remission of hepatitis was induced after more aggressive immunosuppressive therapies including Anti-Thymocyte Globulin (ATG) at standard immunosuppressive therapy (IST) dosing for severe Aplastic Anemia (sAA). Two patients underwent hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT); 1 as first line therapy and 1 for refractory sAA. CONCLUSIONS: We found that ATG-based IST induced remission of hepatitis in patients with steroid-refractory HAAA. This is also an appropriate initial treatment for severe Aplastic Anemia, though may not prevent the need for HSCT. We propose that equine ATG based IST at standard dosing regimen for sAA is a therapy that in select cases can be considered early on in the treatment course and could lead to a sustained remission of both hepatitis and sAA. This should be considered in collaboration with a pediatric hematologist.

Relationships between Physiologic and Neuropsychologic Functioning after Fontan.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate potential relationships between neuropsychologic functioning and cardiac, gastroenterologic/hepatologic, and pulmonary complications in the single ventricle heart disease (SVHD) post-Fontan population. STUDY DESIGN: Following the initiation of a Fontan Multidisciplinary Clinic, patients with SVHD were evaluated systematically according to a clinical care pathway, and data from multiple subspecialty evaluations were collected prospectively from 2016 to 2019. Biomarkers of cardiology, pulmonary, and hepatology/gastroenterology functioning were abstracted, along with neuropsychologic testing results. Bivariate correlations and regression analyses examined cross-sectional relationships between physiologic predictors and neuropsychologic outcomes. RESULTS: The sample included a cohort of 68 youth with SVHD age 3-19 years, after Fontan palliation. Sleep-disordered breathing was related to poorer visual-motor integration skills (r = -0.33; P < .05) and marginally related to poorer executive functioning (r = -0.33; P = .05). Lower arterial blood oxygen content was related to poorer executive functioning (r = .45; P < .05). Greater atrioventricular valve regurgitation was related to lower parent-rated adaptive functioning (ρ = -0.34; P < .01). These results were maintained in regression analyses controlling for history of stroke and/or seizures. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrated associations between neuropsychologic functioning and potentially modifiable aspects of physiologic functioning in a prospectively evaluated cohort of patients with SVHD with Fontan physiology. Our findings emphasize the importance of multidisciplinary screening and care after a Fontan procedure and suggest avenues for intervention that may improve patient outcomes and quality of life.

Patient and Family Experience in a Multidisciplinary Clinic for Children With Single-Ventricle Heart Disease.

Children with single-ventricle heart disease (SVHD) are at risk for morbidity across multiple organ systems. A single-ventricle multidisciplinary clinic (SVMDC) may address complex health-care needs by providing access to, and coordination among, pediatric subspecialties. However, the patient and family experience of multidisciplinary care for SVHD remains unexplored. We e-mailed a 26-question survey to families after an SVMDC visit, which included evaluation with subspecialists from cardiology, pulmonology, gastroenterology, neuropsychology, and pediatric psychology, as well as social activities during clinic. Responses were anonymized to protect privacy, and data were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. Over 3 years, 22% (27/122) of families completed the survey. Overall, families' experiences were positive, with 100% reporting that they would recommend the SVMDC to others. Qualitative themes emerged regarding logistics, multidisciplinary care, key takeaways from clinic, and connection-making with other families. A multidisciplinary clinic demonstrated overall acceptability and perceived benefit to families of children with SVHD. Considerations for mixed experiences regarding financial commitment and connection-making among parents are discussed, as are the benefits of the synergy achieved through multidisciplinary care.

Evidence of Systemic Absorption of Enteral Budesonide in Patients with Fontan-Associated Protein-Losing Enteropathy.

To evaluate for evidence of systemic glucocorticoid absorption in cases of Fontan-associated protein-losing enteropathy (PLE) treated with enteral budesonide, we reviewed the charts of 27 patients with Fontan-associated PLE followed at Children's Hospital Colorado from 2005 to 2018. Cases were excluded for lack of budesonide thserapy or a treatment duration of less than 6 months. Charts were examined by two endocrinologists for review of prior biochemical endocrine evaluations, alterations in linear growth, and physical exam findings consistent with steroid excess. Twelve patients met inclusion criteria. Eight had prior documented cortisol screening. Three patients were tested while on treatment with a median fasting AM cortisol of 0.9 mcg/dL; two of these had a concomitantly measured ACTH, both below the detectable limit. Five patients were tested while weaning or having discontinued budesonide, with a median fasting AM cortisol of 9.1 mcg/dL. Eleven patients had decreases in height velocity associated with starting budesonide. Six patients had documentation of cushingoid features by an endocrinologist. In this cohort of children treated with budesonide for PLE following Fontan, clinical signs of systemic glucocorticoid absorption were frequent. Cortisol secretion was suppressed while on therapy, with adrenal recovery noted once budesonide was discontinued. Growth failure and cushingoid features were common findings. While these findings should be confirmed in larger cohorts, we recommend that the evaluation for systemic absorption of exogenous steroids be considered in patients treated with long-term enteral budesonide given the potential risk for adrenal crisis in times of physiologic stressors.

Initiating a Fontan multidisciplinary clinic: Decreasing care variability, improving surveillance, and subsequent treatment of Fontan survivors.

BACKGROUND: Children with single ventricle (SV) heart disease who undergo Fontan operation are at risk for developing multiorgan dysfunction. Although survival has improved, significant comorbidities involving multiple organ systems may develop, requiring evaluation and management by many subspecialists. Using data from an internal survey, we documented high care variability for our Fontan population. We then developed a multidisciplinary clinic, designed and implemented a clinical care pathway to decrease variability of patient assessment. METHODS: After creating a multidisciplinary team and a clinical care pathway, we initiated a multidisciplinary clinic (MDC) where patients could see multiple subspecialists during a single encounter. We then monitored our effectiveness by retrospective chart review to determine care pathway adherence (process measure) and incidence of new diagnoses of end-organ injury (outcome measure) as well interventions implemented. Adherence was analyzed using statistical process control (SPC) charts. RESULTS: Eighty-six patients were seen in the MDC from January 2016 to September 2017. The proportion of patients with appropriate testing increased, related to strong care pathway adherence. A significant amount of novel pathology was diagnosed in all evaluated organ systems, both Fontan-associated comorbidities and general pediatric diagnoses. Subsequent interventions included cardiac catheterization n = 21 (31%) with more than half of these patients undergoing intervention n = 17 (20%), and liver biopsy n = 9 (10%). Additionally, 58 patients (67%) were referred to a neuropsychologist based on perceived clinical need, with n = 34 (40%) undergoing a neuropsychological evaluation. CONCLUSIONS: Children who have undergone Fontan palliation are at risk for developing cardiac and noncardiac comorbidities. Use and adherence to an institutional care pathway resulted in the diagnosis of significant novel pathology and subsequently provided opportunity for intervention.

Cytokine-Producing B Cells Promote Immune-Mediated Bile Duct Injury in Murine Biliary Atresia.

Biliary atresia (BA) is a neonatal T cell-mediated, inflammatory, sclerosing cholangiopathy. In the rhesus rotavirus (RRV)-induced neonatal mouse model of BA (murine BA), mice lacking B cells do not develop BA, and the lack of B cells is associated with loss of T-cell and macrophage activation. The aim of this study was to determine the mechanism of B cell-mediated immune activation (antigen presentation versus cytokine production) in murine BA. Normal neonatal B cells in the liver are predominantly at pro-B and pre-B cellular development. However, BA mice exhibit a significant increase in the number and activation status of mature liver B cells. Adoptively transferred B cells into RRV-infected, B cell-deficient mice were able to reinstate T-cell and macrophage infiltration and biliary injury. Nonetheless, neonatal liver B cells were incompetent at antigen presentation to T cells. Moreover, 3-83 immunoglobulin transgenic mice, in which B cells only present an irrelevant antigen, developed BA, indicating a B-cell antigen-independent mechanism. B cells from BA mice produced a variety of innate and adaptive immune cytokines associated with immune activation. In vitro trans-well studies revealed that BA B cells secreted cytokines that activated T cells based on increased expression of T-cell activation marker cluster of differentiation 69. Conclusion: Neonatal liver B cells are highly activated in murine BA and contribute to immune activation through production of numerous cytokines involved in innate and adaptive immunity; this work provides increased knowledge on the capacity of neonatal B cells to contribute to an inflammatory disease through cytokine-mediated mechanisms, and future studies should focus on targeting B cells as a therapeutic intervention in human BA.