Understanding barriers to well-child visit attendance among racial and ethnic minority parents.

OBJECTIVES: To assess racial and ethnic minority parents' perceptions about barriers to well-child visit attendance. METHODS: For this cross-sectional qualitative study, we recruited parents of pediatric primary care patients who were overdue for a well-child visit from the largest safety net healthcare organization in central Massachusetts to participate in semi-structured interviews. The interviews focused on understanding potential knowledge, structural, and experiential barriers for well-child visit attendance. Interview content was inductively coded and directed content analysis was performed to identify themes. RESULTS: Twenty-five racial and ethnic minority parents participated; 17 (68%) of whom identified Spanish as a primary language spoken at home. Nearly all participants identified the purpose, significance, and value of well-child visits. Structural barriers were most cited as challenges to attending well-child visits, including parking, transportation, language, appointment availability, and work/other competing priorities. While language emerged as a distinct barrier, it also exacerbated some of the structural barriers identified. Experiential barriers were cited less commonly than structural barriers and included interactions with office staff, racial/ethnic discrimination, appointment reminders, methods of communication, wait time, and interactions with providers. CONCLUSIONS: Racial and ethnic minority parents recognize the value of well-child visits; however, they commonly encounter structural barriers that limit access to care. Furthermore, a non-English primary language compounds the impact of these structural barriers. Understanding these barriers is important to inform health system policies to enhance access and delivery of pediatric care with a lens toward reducing racial and ethnic-based inequities.

A Qualitative Study of Maternal Perceptions of Stress and Parenting During Early Childhood.

OBJECTIVE: Exposure to maternal stress in early childhood can increase risk for learning and behavior challenges. We sought to gain in-depth understanding of how mothers perceive stressors to impact child wellbeing and identify mothers' strategies for navigating stressors with their young children. METHODS: We recruited English- and Spanish-speaking mothers from a primary care clinic serving predominantly publicly insured children. Twenty-one mothers (aged >18 years) of children (aged 6-29 months) participated in in-depth, semi-structured interviews to discuss their experiences and beliefs regarding stress and parenting. Interviews were recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analyzed using the constant comparative method associated with a grounded theory approach. RESULTS: We developed the following hypothesized explanatory model based on our key thematic findings: Mothers described a dyadic model of stress, whereby both their children's and their own experiences of and responses to stressors are interdependent. Mothers use preventive and responsive buffering to mitigate the impact of stress on their children; however, their access to resources, including social and financial support, shapes their capacity for implementing such strategies. Affection and other forms of relational support may function to protect against the negative impacts of stress. CONCLUSION: In the setting of poverty-related chronic stressors, mothers play an active role in mitigating the impact of stress on their children's wellbeing through responsive caregiving. Policies aimed at reducing poverty-related stress exposures and experiences among low-income families may be key interventions for promoting responsive caregiving during a critical time in child development.

Addressing adverse social determinants of health in pediatric primary care: Study protocol for a hybrid type 2 effectiveness-implementation randomized controlled trial in two national pediatric practice-based research networks.

BACKGROUND: Growing evidence linking social determinants of health (SDOH) to child health outcomes has prompted widespread recommendations for pediatricians to screen and refer for adverse SDOH at primary care visits. Yet there is little evidence to date demonstrating the effectiveness of practice-based SDOH screening and referral interventions on increasing family engagement with resources. This hybrid type 2 effectiveness-implementation trial aims to demonstrate the non-inferiority of a low-touch implementation strategy in order to facilitate dissemination of an existing SDOH screening and referral system (WE CARE) and demonstrate its effectiveness and sustainability in various pediatric practices. METHODS: We recruited eighteen pediatric practices in fourteen US states through two pediatric practice-based research networks. For this stepped wedge cluster RCT, practices serve as their own controls during the Usual Care phase and implement WE CARE during the intervention phase via one of two randomized implementation strategies: self-directed, pre-recorded webinar vs. study team-facilitated, live webinar. We collect data at practice, clinician/staff, and parent levels to assess outcomes grounded in the Proctor Conceptual Model of Implementation Research. We use generalized mixed effects models and differences in proportions to compare rates of resource referrals by implementation strategy, and intention-to-treat analysis to compare odds of engagement with new resources among families enrolled in the Usual Care vs. WE CARE phases. DISCUSSION: Findings from this trial may inform decisions about broader dissemination of SDOH screening systems into a diverse spectrum of pediatric practices across the US and potentially minimize the impact of adverse SDOH on children and families.

Bidirectional processes linking social determinants of health and pediatric sickle cell anemia management: A qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Children with sickle cell anemia (SCA) have substantial medical needs and more unmet basic needs than children with other medical conditions. Despite a recent focus on social determinants of health (SDoH), there remains an incomplete understanding of the processes linking SDoH and disease management, particularly for youth with SCA. This study elucidated these processes and identified ways to mitigate deleterious effects of adverse SDoH on SCA management. METHODS: Parents/primary caregivers (N = 27) of children with SCA (≤12 years old) participated in semi-structured interviews regarding SCA management and SDoH and completed quantitative measures of basic needs. Qualitative data were systematically coded and analyzed using applied thematic analysis. Quantitative data were presented descriptively. RESULTS: Three qualitative themes were identified. First, SCA management is bidirectionally linked with the social environment, whereby challenges of SCA management can hinder basic needs from being met, and unmet basic needs and financial hardship hinder SCA management. Second, due to limited resources, parents/caregivers are faced with difficult choices between prioritizing basic needs versus SCA management. Third, addressing material, emotional, and informational needs may improve SCA management. Quantitatively, 73% of families endorsed ≥1 basic need, including food insecurity (42%), housing instability (62%), and/or energy insecurity 19% (vs. 20%). CONCLUSION: Despite documented associations, there remains a poor understanding of the processes linking SDoH and health. Findings underscore how day-to-day conditions undermine the management of SCA treatments, symptoms, and complications, limiting treatment effectiveness. Understanding these processes may inform family-centered, health equity interventions and policies to improve living conditions, disease management, and health outcomes.

A Social Care System Implemented in Pediatric Primary Care: A Cluster RCT.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the implementation and effectiveness of the augmented WE CARE social care system on low-income children's health care utilization and child maltreatment outcomes. METHODS: We conducted a type 1 hybrid effectiveness-implementation cluster randomized controlled trial at 6 community health centers. Full-term infants were followed from birth to age 3. The 3 experimental clinics implemented the augmented WE CARE system at well-child visits, consisting of a self-report screening instrument for 7 basic needs; an electronic health record-generated resource information referral system; and access to a peer patient navigator. Families at control community health centers received usual care; 1 control site was contaminated and removed from primary analysis. We analyzed results using generalized mixed-effects models. RESULTS: Overall, 878 children were followed until age 3. Implementation of WE CARE was poor with only 28.9% of visits having a WE CARE screener documented. WE CARE families received significantly more resource referrals than control families (43.1% vs 1.9%, adjusted odds ratio 4.6; 95% confidence interval, 2.0-5.6); 20% were referred to the patient navigator. WE CARE children had significantly higher immunization adherence ratios. Although there were no statistically significant differences with well-child visits, WE CARE children had higher rates of emergency department visits than control children. By age 3, WE CARE children had significantly higher hospitalization rates (14.1% vs 10.4%, adjusted odds ratio 1.3, 95% confidence interval: 1.03-1.7). There were no statistically significant differences with maltreatment outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: We found poor implementation and mixed benefits for the augmented WE CARE system on immunization, health care utilization, and maltreatment outcomes in early childhood.

A cross-sectional study of relationships between social risks and prevalence and severity of pediatric chronic conditions.

BACKGROUND: To examine the differential relationships between seven social risk factors (individually and cumulatively) with the prevalence and severity of asthma, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and overweight/obesity in children. METHODS: Using the 2017-2018 National Survey of Children's Health, we examined associations between social risk factors (caregiver education, caregiver underemployment, discrimination, food insecurity, insurance coverage, neighborhood support, and neighborhood safety) and the prevalence and severity of asthma, ADHD, ASD, and overweight/obesity. We used multivariable logistic regression to assess the relationship between individual and cumulative risk factors with each pediatric chronic condition, controlling for child sex and age. RESULTS: Although each social risk factor was significantly associated with increased prevalence and/or severity of at least one of the pediatric chronic conditions we investigated, food insecurity was significantly associated with higher disease prevalence and severity for all four conditions. Caregiver underemployment, low social support, and discrimination were significantly associated with higher disease prevalence across all conditions. For each additional social risk factor a child was exposed to, their odds of having each condition increased: overweight/obesity (aOR: 1.2, 95% CI: [1.2, 1.3]), asthma (aOR: 1.3, 95% CI: [1.2, 1.3], ADHD (aOR: 1.2, 95% CI: [1.2, 1.3]), and ASD (aOR: 1.4, 95% CI: [1.3, 1.5]). CONCLUSIONS: This study elucidates differential relationships between several social risk factors and the prevalence and severity of common pediatric chronic conditions. While more research is needed, our results suggest that social risks, particularly food insecurity, are potential factors in the development of pediatric chronic conditions.

Beyond income: material hardship and the health and healthcare of premature children.

OBJECTIVES: To estimate national prevalence of household hardships (food insufficiency, financial hardship, and difficulty paying medical bills) among children born term and preterm; and examine associations of household hardships with preterm children's outcomes (health status, emergency room visits, and unmet healthcare needs). METHODS: We studied 24,026 children aged 0-3 years born term, preterm with moderately low birth weight (1501-2499 grams) and preterm with very low birth weight (VLBW; ≤1500 grams). Using propensity score matching to control for correlates of poverty, we examined associations of hardships and child outcomes. RESULTS: Compared with term, households with preterm VLBW children had >2-fold higher odds of financial hardship (aOR:2.63; 95% CI: 1.26-5.46) and >5-fold higher odds of difficulty paying bills (aOR:5.60; 95% CI: 2.35-10.35). Matching for sociodemographics, special healthcare needs, income and receipt of public benefits, hardships were independently associated with adverse preterm children's outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Addressing household hardships is needed to optimize preterm child outcomes.

Effects of Experienced Discrimination in Pediatric Sickle Cell Disease: Caregiver and Provider Perspectives.

For Black children with sickle cell disease (SCD) and their families, high disease stigmatization and pervasive racism increase susceptibility to discrimination in healthcare settings. Childhood experiences of discrimination can result in medical nonadherence, mistrust of healthcare providers, and poorer health outcomes across the lifespan. Caregivers and medical providers are essential to childhood SCD management and are therefore well-positioned to provide insight into discrimination in the context of pediatric SCD. This mixed-methods study sought caregivers' and providers' perspectives on processes underlying discrimination and potential solutions to mitigate the negative effects of perceived discrimination among children with SCD. Caregivers (N = 27) of children with SCD (≤ 12 years old) and providers from their hematology clinics (N = 11) participated in individual semi-structured interviews exploring experiences of discrimination and daily SCD management and completed a quantitative measure of discrimination. Qualitative data were collected until themes reached saturation and subsequently transcribed verbatim, coded, and analyzed using applied thematic analysis. Quantitative and qualitative data converged to suggest the pervasiveness of discrimination in healthcare settings. Three qualitative themes emerged: (1) healthcare system factors underlie discrimination, (2) families' challenging interactions with providers lead to perceptions of discrimination, and (3) experiences of discrimination impact caregiver-provider interactions. Both caregivers and providers highlighted building trusting patient-provider relationships and encouraging patients' self-advocacy as means to reduce experiences and impacts of discrimination. These findings offer potential approaches to tangibly mitigate occurrences of discrimination in pediatric healthcare settings by trust building, accountability keeping, and fostering rapport to improve quality of care and pediatric SCD health outcomes.

A qualitative analysis of barriers to opioid agonist treatment for racial/ethnic minoritized populations.

INTRODUCTION: Clinical guidelines strongly recommend opioid agonist treatment (OAT) as first-line treatment for opioid use disorder (OUD). However, racial/ethnic minoritized patients are less likely to receive OAT compared to non-Hispanic White patients. Reasons for this treatment gap must be elucidated to address racial/ethnic disparities in OAT. Our objective is to evaluate perceptions of and barriers to OAT across racial/ethnic groups in individuals with OUD (not on OAT). METHODS: This qualitative study used semi-structured telephone interviews of adult patients (n = 41) with OUD (not currently being treated with OAT) from the Boston area from September 2020 through February 2021. We developed a codebook through author consensus based on review of themes in initial transcripts. We performed qualitative thematic analysis of the transcripts. We evaluated patients' perceptions of treatment for OUD across the study population and analyzed differences and similarities in perceptions between racial and ethnic groups. RESULTS: Across all racial/ethnic categories in our sample, anticipated stigma was the most frequently reported barrier to OAT and most patients preferred non-OAT methods for treatment. Non-Hispanic White participants had more favorable opinions of OAT compared to racial/ethnic minoritized participants. Racial/ethnic minoritized participants reported social support as the main facilitator to addiction treatment, while non-Hispanic White participants reported self-motivation as the most important factor. Racial/ethnic minoritized participants preferred treatment for OUD via non-OAT treatments and their second most preferred option was residential treatment. Non-Hispanic White participants preferred naltrexone and their second most preferred option was non-OAT treatments. CONCLUSIONS: Racial/ethnic minoritized patients' preference for residential treatment and social support, along with their distrust of OAT, illustrates a desire for psychosocial and peer recovery-based care that addresses social determinants of health. Addiction specialists may improve engagement with and treatment of racial/ethnic minoritized groups with culturally tailored interventions for OUD that offer psychosocial treatment in combination with OAT, and by partnering with organizations with strong ties to racial/ethnic minoritized communities. This kind of response would reflect the structural and cultural humility that is needed to adequately address the OUD needs of these underserved populations.

The Association Between Racial Discrimination, Race, and Social Class With Health Among US Children.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the association between racial discrimination, race and ethnicity, and social class with child health and unmet health care needs among children in the United States (US). METHODS: We used a nationally representative sample of children aged 0 to 17 from the 2018-2019 National Survey of Children's Health. Bivariate and multivariable logistic regression were used to test associations between measures of discrimination, social class (income, employment, and education), and race and ethnicity with overall child health and unmet health care needs controlling for covariates identified a priori. RESULTS: Overall, 90.3% of children (n = 59,964) had excellent/very good overall health; 3.1% had unmet health care needs. Black, non-Hispanic children had 8.9 times the odds of having experienced racial discrimination compared to White, non-Hispanic children (95% confidence interval [CI], 7.0-11.4). Having special health care needs was significantly associated with greater odds of racial discrimination (OR 2.3; 95% CI, 1.9-2.8). In multivariable models, underrepresented race and ethnicity groups, lower household income level, and lower caregiver education were significantly associated with poorer overall child health. Conversely, experiencing discrimination was not significantly associated with excellent/good overall child health (adjusted odds ratios [aORs], 0.8; 95% CI, 0.6-1.1) Racial discrimination (aOR 2.7; 95% CI, 1.9-4.0) and lower household income (aOR 2.6; 95% CI, 1.8-3.5) were associated with significantly greater odds of unmet health care needs. CONCLUSION: Race and ethnicity and low social class were significantly associated with worse overall health while racial discrimination and low-income were associated with more unmet health care needs. These findings underscore the importance of policy and health care system innovations that address the effects of racism and poverty on child health.

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program participation and health care expenditures in children.

BACKGROUND: The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) has well-established positive impacts on child health outcomes, including increased birth weight and decreased likelihood of underweight status. Studies in adult populations suggest that SNAP is associated with lower health care costs, although less is known in children. METHODS: Retrospective analysis of U.S. children (age <18 years) living in low-income households (< 200% of the federal poverty level) in the 2013-2017 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey. We used multivariable regression, adjusting for sociodemographic and clinical covariates, to model the effect of continuous SNAP enrollment on health expenditures as compared to non-enrollees at 12 and 24 months. RESULTS: The sample included 5,626 children, of whom 49.2% consistently received SNAP for the entire two-year survey period. Compared with SNAP non-recipients, SNAP-recipient households more often had incomes below 100% FPL (78.3% vs 37.9%), and children in SNAP-recipient households were more often publicly insured (94.9% vs 64.5%). Unadjusted expenditures were lower for children in SNAP-recipient households at 12 ($1222 vs $1603) and 24 months ($2447 vs $3009). However, when adjusting for sociodemographic and clinical differences, no statistically significant differences in health care expenditures, including emergency department, inpatient, outpatient, and prescription costs, were identified. CONCLUSION: SNAP participant children experience heightened social hardships across multiple domains. There were no differences in short term health care costs based on SNAP enrollment when accounting for differences in sociodemographic and clinical factors. Despite demonstrated child health benefits, we found that sustained enrollment in SNAP over a two-year period did not generate significant short- term health care cost reductions. Our findings suggest that although SNAP is intended to act as a benefit towards the health and well-being of its recipients, unlike among adults, it may not reduce health care costs among children.

Clinical and public policy interventions to address food insecurity among children.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: This article describes the impacts of food insecurity (FI) on child health, outlines clinical and public policy interventions to mitigate FI in children, and defines new paradigms in population health to ameliorate the harmful effects of FI in children. RECENT FINDINGS: Rates of FI among children have dramatically increased with the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, with particular adverse impact on low-income children. Population health innovations in screening, referral, and social service integration offer new opportunities to address FI. SUMMARY: Despite advances in clinical practice and public policy, FI remains a persistent issue for many US children. Clinicians and policymakers have opportunities to leverage clinical and community-based integration to improve service delivery opportunities to ameliorate childhood hunger and racial and socioeconomic inequity in the United States.

Clinical Approaches to Reducing Material Hardship Due to Poverty: Social Risks/Needs Identification and Interventions.

The field of pediatrics has pioneered approaches to mitigating poverty's harmful effects on children's health and development. Clinical interventions for systematically addressing material hardships due to poverty within the context of pediatric care delivery, however, are still in their infancy. Since the American Academy of Pediatrics published its policy statement on Child Health and Poverty in the United States in 2016, interest has surged in the development and implementation of care models that systematically identify and address social risks and/or social needs. This article explores this major shift in interest, research, and investment in such interventions within pediatric care. We provide an overview of current screening and referral models for addressing poverty-related social factors and explore the strengths and weaknesses of these varied approaches. We summarize the current evidence supporting such clinical approaches, and comment on the importance of multi-sectoral partnerships in addressing families' and communities' needs. Lastly, we propose future directions for research and pediatric practice that may enhance the uptake of social risks/needs interventions and bolster the evidence of their effectiveness. Though clinical approaches for addressing material hardship may be limited by an insufficient social safety net and other barriers, interventions to identify and address families' social risks and social needs have the potential to combat poverty's impact on children and advance health equity.

Addressing unmet basic needs for children with sickle cell disease in the United States: clinic and staff perspectives.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to assess pediatric hematology clinic staff's perspectives regarding barriers and facilitators in addressing unmet basic needs for children with sickle cell disease (SCD). METHODOLOGY: Six focus groups were held at four urban pediatric hematology clinics in the Northeastern region of the United States from November to December 2019. Discussion questions were developed to align with the integrated Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health Services (i-PARIHS) implementation science framework, focusing on the domains of context and recipient and how clinics address adverse social determinants of health (SDoH) in their patient populations. A summative content analytical approach was taken to identify major themes in the data. RESULTS: We discerned the following themes: (1) families of children with SCD experience numerous unmet basic needs; (2) clinic staff believed they had a role to play in addressing these unmet basic needs; (3) staff felt their ability to address families' unmet basic needs depended upon caregivers' capacity to act on staff's recommendations; and (4) clinic staff's ability to address these needs was limited by organizational and systemic factors beyond their control. CONCLUSIONS: These findings have important implications for how best to address adverse SDoH for this vulnerable pediatric population so that urban-based pediatric hematology clinics can more equitably support families.

Approaches to addressing social determinants of health in the NICU: a mixed methods study.

OBJECTIVE: Examine current approaches to addressing social determinants of health (SDOH) in the NICU and perceived appropriateness of a standardized screening and referral process. STUDY DESIGN: We performed a mixed methods study in two Massachusetts safety-net NICUs. We examined rates that unmet basic needs were assessed and identified among 601 families. We conducted focus groups with NICU staff to understand current methods to assess unmet basic needs and perceived appropriateness of a standardized SDOH screening and referral process. RESULT: Except employment (89%), other unmet basic needs were infrequently assessed (housing 38%, food/hunger 7%, childcare 3%, transportation 3%, utilities 0.2%). Staff believed: (1) processes to assess SDOH were not standardized and inconsistently performed/documented; (2) addressing SDOH was important; and (3) using a standardized screening and referral process would be feasible. CONCLUSIONS: Current NICU assessment of SDOH is limited and use of a standardized screening and referral process could be useful.

Impact of an On-Site Versus Remote Patient Navigator on Pediatricians' Referrals and Families' Receipt of Resources for Unmet Social Needs.

Background: Patient navigation is increasingly being used by pediatric health care delivery systems to address patients' unmet social needs. However, it is not known whether navigators working remotely can be as effective at linking families to community resources as on-site navigators. The aim of this study was to assess whether a patient navigator located on-site versus remotely is more likely to receive referrals from clinicians, successfully follow-up with patients, and assist families with enrollment in social needs resources. Methods: A patient navigator worked on-site and remotely as she divided her time between 4 federally qualified health centers (FQHCs) from May 2015 to June 2019. We conducted a 1-sample test of proportion comparing the proportion of on-site referrals made with the proportion of the week spent in each FQHC. To assess the impact of on-site versus remote referrals on number of contacts with a family, we conducted a 2-sample t test. We used chi-square testing to assess the effect of on-site versus remote status on resource enrollment. Results: Of the referrals (N = 414) made to the patient navigator, the majority were made through the electronic health record (83%) versus in person (17%) (P < .0001). When the navigator was on-site, significantly more referrals were made than expected (45% vs 29%, P < .0001). Between remote and on-site referral groups, there was no significant difference in number of contact points (1.0 vs 1.1 points, P = .32) or in the proportion of families who received a resource (4.6% vs 5.1%, P = .31). Conclusion: Our results indicate that clinicians were significantly more likely to refer families to patient navigation if the navigator was on-site. The likelihood of having contact with the navigator and enrolling in a resource, however, did not differ between families referred when the patient navigator was on-site compared with remote.

Implementing Social Determinants of Health Screening at Community Health Centers: Clinician and Staff Perspectives.

Purpose: Screening for social determinants of health (SDOH) during primary care office visits is recommended by pediatric and internal medicine professional guidelines. Less is known about how SDOH screening and service referral can be successfully integrated into clinical practice. Methods: Key informant interviews with 11 community health center (CHC) clinicians and staff members (medical assistants and case managers) were analyzed to identify themes related to integrating a SDOH screening and referral process (augmented WE CARE model) into their workflow. Results: CHC clinicians and staff believed the augmented WE CARE model benefited their patients and the CHC's mission. Most clinicians found the model was easy to implement. Some staff members had difficulty prioritizing the nonclinical intervention and were confused about their roles and the role of the patient navigator. The eligibility requirements and time needed to access local SDOH resources frustrated clinicians. Discussion: SDOH screening and referral care models can help support the mission of CHCs by identifying unmet material needs. However, CHCs have organizational and administrative challenges that successful interventions must address. CHCs need clinical champions for SDOH models because the screening and follow-up processes involve clinical staff. Additional support for SDOH models might include piloting the SDOH screening model workflow and formalizing the workflow before implementation, including the specific roles for clinicians, staff, and patient navigators.

Long-Term Retention in an Outpatient Behavioral Health Clinic With Buprenorphine.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Despite high comorbidity between substance use disorders and other mental health diagnoses, there is a paucity of literature on buprenorphine treatment outcomes in outpatient mental health settings. This study aimed to identify rates and predictors of outpatient buprenorphine treatment retention in a Behavioral Health Clinic (BHC). METHODS: This retrospective cohort study of adults on buprenorphine used multiple logistic regression to identify clinical and demographic factors associated with 1- and 2-year treatment retention and buprenorphine adherence. RESULTS: Of 321 subjects, 169 (52.6%) were retained in treatment for at least 1 year; 114 (35.5%) were retained for 2 years or more. Buprenorphine adherence was 95.8% and 97.3% for 1- and 2-year retention groups, respectively. Predictors of 1-year retention included benzodiazepine co-prescription (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 2.4; 95% CI [1.30, 4.55]), having a diagnosis of other mood disorder (AOR = 3.4; [1.95, 5.98]), or nicotine use disorder (AOR = 2.4; [1.35, 4.27]). Predictors of 2-year retention included female gender (AOR = 2.1; [1.16, 3.73]), having a diagnosis of depressive disorder (AOR = 4.6; [1.49, 14.29]), other mood disorder (AOR = 3.6; [1.88, 6.88]), or nicotine use disorder (AOR = 2.0; [1.13, 3.52]). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: During the study period, 52.7% and 35.5% of BHC patients treated with buprenorphine were retained for 1 and 2 years, respectively, comparable to the studies performed within primary care. Providing buprenorphine treatment within mental health clinics may serve patients who are already engaged with mental health providers but are reluctant to start new treatment within another treatment setting. SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: Identifying common predictors of retention can help determine which patients require additional substance use treatment support. (Am J Addict 2019;28:339-346).