Transitions on and off AFDC: implications for parenting and children's cognitive development.

The goal of current national and state legislation on welfare reform is to decrease the number of people who are dependent on public assistance, most of whom are mothers and their young children. Mothers' patterns of welfare receipt in the 3 years following the birth of a child were examined vis-à-vis their associations with maternal emotional distress (General Health Questionnaire), provision of learning experiences (Home Observation of the Measurement of the Environment), parenting behavior, and the child's cognitive test score (Stanford-Binet) in the third year of life. The data set was the Infant Health and Development Program, an eight-site randomized clinical trial designed to test the efficacy of educational and family support services in reducing developmental delays in low-birthweight, preterm infants (N = 833). Strong negative associations were found between receiving welfare and parenting behavior and child outcomes at age 3 years. Outcomes varied depending on when the mother received public assistance (earlier or later in her child's first 3 years) and family poverty status on leaving welfare. The parenting behavior of mothers who had left welfare by their child's third birthday was more likely to be authoritarian if she had left public assistance without also leaving poverty. Implications of these findings for the well-being of children in low-income families are discussed.

Maternal coping strategies and emotional distress: results of an early intervention program for low birth weight young children.

Several questions were examined with Infant Health and Development Program (IHDP) data (N = 843). Are effects of intervention services found for maternal emotional distress and coping strategies, and are these effects different for different groups of mothers? Do maternal distress, coping, and life events moderate (or mediate) the intervention effects reported earlier for children's test scores and behavior problems (IHDP, 1990)? The intervention reduced maternal distress, especially for women with less than a high school education. Maternal distress did not moderate or mediate the influence of the intervention on child outcomes. Maternal coping was not influenced by the intervention and did not moderate the influence of the intervention on child outcomes. Life events moderated the influence of the intervention on children's test scores; the intervention was more effective for children whose mothers had fewer life events.

Effects of combining public assistance and employment on mothers and their young children.

One goal of recent welfare reform legislation is to move welfare-dependent mothers with young children into the paid labor force. However, prior to the new legislation, many welfare-dependent women were already engaged in employment activities. In this paper we examine whether child or maternal well-being is influenced by a mother's strategy of combining work and public assistance receipt in the late 1980s. Measures of well-being include children's cognitive test scores and behavior problems, parenting behavior, and maternal mental health, social support, and coping strategies collected when children were 2 1/2 to 3 years of age. Data from the Infant Health and Development Program (a sample of low birthweight, premature infants born in 8 sites in 1985) were used to identify low-income families (incomes under 200% of the poverty threshold; N = 525). Comparisons were made among mothers in the following groups: (a) Work Only, (b) Some Work-Some Welfare, (c) Some Work-No Welfare, (d) No Work-No Welfare, and (e) Welfare Only. Mothers in the Some Work-Some Welfare group had children with cognitive and behavioral scores similar to children whose mothers were in the Work Only group; these two groups also had similar mental health, social support, and coping scores. However, not working and receiving welfare (Welfare Only) was associated with negative cognitive and behavioral outcomes for children, with less stimulating home learning environments, lower maternal mental health, less social support, and more avoidant coping strategies. We discuss the proposition that welfare and work may be complementary rather than opposing strategies, in terms of putting together a family income package.

Co-occurring eating and depressive problems: an 8-year study of adolescent girls.

OBJECTIVE: This paper examines prospectively the co-occurrence of eating and depressive problems in 105 White girls who were seen at three times from young adolescence to young adulthood. METHOD: Girls were from middle to upper-middle class families. Co-occurrence of eating and depressive problems was determined cross-sectionally from questionnaire data using established criteria for identifying subclinical problems. RESULTS: The rate of depressive problems declines across middle to late adolescence while the rate of eating problems is fairly constant across all three times of assessment. Analyses suggest that girls with depressive problems (with and without co-occurring eating problems) experience impairments in peer and family relationships; girls with high scores on both problems have poor adjustment across several domains. DISCUSSION: The additional psychological strains seen with co-occurrence of eating and depressive problems heighten physical and mental health concomitants of both problems across adolescence.

Associations between employment and financial and parental stress in low-income single black mothers.

Using a sample of 188 low-income single black mothers (93 employed and 95 nonemployed), this study investigated financial strain, maternal depressive affect, and parenting stress among former welfare recipients who are now working, and current welfare recipients who are not employed. The findings suggested that being employed did not reduce financial strain, as the two groups reported similar levels of strain. However, regression analyses indicated that not being employed was associated with reporting higher levels of stress. Parenting stress was also associated with attaining less education, having boys, reporting more financial strain and depressive affect. Correlates of maternal depressive affect were mother's education and financial strain. Interaction effects were found for employment by financial strain, indicating that higher levels of depressive affect were related to more financial strain among nonemployed mothers. The findings suggest that although employment is associated with better mental health for poor mothers, entry into the workforce is associated with stronger links between financial strain, parenting stress and depressive affect for mothers leaving welfare.

Natural vaginal progesterone is associated with minimal psychological side effects: a preliminary study.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the psychological side effects of a transvaginal natural progesterone gel in hormone replacement therapy (HRT). This 3-month preliminary study was part of a multicenter study previously performed in our center. We enrolled 49 women (ages 18-45 years) with hypothalamic amenorrhea (HA) (n = 40) and premature ovarian failure (POF) (n = 9). Estrogenized patients applied vaginal progesterone gel (4% or 8%) every other day for six doses per month. The Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL), a psychometric profile test, was administered at baseline, day 13 of cycle 2, day 24 of cycle 2, and day 24 of cycle 3. Application of the progesterone gel caused no significant change in HSCL total scores or individual symptom scores for somatization, obsession-compulsion, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, and anxiety. Natural vaginal progesterone gel can be an effective alternative to oral progesterone for women on HRT.

Single mothers in low-wage jobs: financial strain, parenting, and preschoolers' outcomes.

Using data from an ongoing study of 93 single Black mothers of preschoolers who had been welfare recipients, but were employed in low-wage jobs at baseline, this study tests a model of how maternal education, economic conditions (earnings and financial strain), and the availability of instrumental support influence maternal psychological functioning, parenting, and child development. Results indicate that maternal educational attainment was positively associated with earnings, which, together with instrumental support, were negatively associated with financial strain. Financial strain, in turn, was implicated in elevated levels of depressive symptoms, which were directly and negatively implicated in parenting quality. The quality of parenting was associated with children's behavior problems and preschool ability. Specifically, mothers with higher scores on the HOME scale, our measure of involved, supportive parenting, had children with fewer behavior problems and better preschool ability.

Black and white girls' racial preferences in media and peer choices and the role of socialization for black girls.

This exploratory research compared Black and White girls' racial preferences as exhibited through their media (music and television) and peer choices. The sample included 140 8- and 9-year-old Black and White girls of various socioeconomic levels. Findings suggested that both Black and White girls have more Black music preferences than White or no-race music preferences. Also, both Black and White girls made more White television program choices than Black or no-race choices. In their peer selections, all girls preferred same-race peers. Black mothers who engaged in racial socialization practices had girls who were more likely to prefer Black music and television to the other categories. Further, Black mothers who promoted more cultural distance and mothers who were poor had girls with more same-race peer preferences.

Patterns of service use in preschool children: correlates, consequences, and the role of early intervention.

This article explores service use broadly by examining the mix of educational, health, and psychosocial services that preschool children received in the fifth year of life. The sample included 869 children who participated in the Infant Health and Development Program, an early intervention program designed to evaluate the efficacy of a comprehensive early intervention for low-birth-weight, premature infants during the first 3 years of life and who were followed until age 5. Cluster analyses of services at age 5 yielded 4 service groups--basic health only (doctor visits; n = 114); basic health and educational services (doctor visits and school/preschool; n = 444); basic health, educational, and psychosocial services (or multiple services; doctor visits, school/preschool, and psychosocial services; n = 129); and specialized health and educational services (doctor visits, school/preschool, emergency room visits and special medical visits [ear and/or eye examinations]; n = 182). Results suggest that neonatal health conditions, maternal education at the time of the child's birth, child developmental status at age 3, and maternal health, family income, and insurance status at age 5 were associated with patterns of services at age 5. Patterns of use are consistent over time (the first 3 years of life to the 5th year of life). After covarying the correlates of the service patterns, participation in the early intervention was not associated with patterns of services at age 5, and service patterns were associated with child well-being (health, school readiness, mental health), but results differed by intervention status. Findings are discussed in terms of preventive, responsive, and deficit models of service use.

A prospective study of familial and social influences on girls' body image and dieting.

OBJECTIVE: This study examines the emergence of body image concerns and dieting behaviors in early adolescence as a function of girls' perceptions of family relationships, maternal modeling of dieting behaviors and body image concerns, and familial and peer pressures to diet. METHOD: Self-report measures were obtained from 77 White girls and their mothers in early adolescence (mean age = 12.3 years) and 1 year later. RESULTS: Girls' perceptions of family relations and mothers' perceptions of daughters' weight at Time 1 significantly predicted girls' dieting behavior 1 year later over and above Time 1 dieting and body image. Only girls' previous body image and dieting behaviors significantly predicted more body dissatisfaction 1 year later. Girls' body image was found to mediate the relationship between family relations and dieting at Time 1 assessment, but not over time. DISCUSSION: The importance of implementing early prevention and interventions programs is discussed.

Family poverty, welfare reform, and child development.

Our review of research suggests that family poverty has selective effects on child development. Most important for policy are indications that deep or persistent poverty early in childhood affects adversely the ability and achievement of children. Although the 1996 welfare reforms have spurred many welfare-to-work transitions, their time limits and, especially, sanctions are likely to deepen poverty among some families. We suggest ways policies might be aimed at preventing either economic deprivation itself or its effects.

Depending on the kindness of strangers: current national data initiatives and developmental research.

This article provides a brief review of current large-scale, longitudinal data collection initiatives focusing on children. These studies will be available for secondary data analyses in the twenty-first century. In addition to child outcome data, process-oriented information is being collected on child-parent interactions, quality of child care, elementary school teacher reports and classroom observations, accessibility and use of health, educational and social services, parental mental health, family violence, fathering, parental residence patterns, income and income sources, child support, employment patterns, and community characteristics. Several of these studies are randomized trials of the efficacy of early childhood intervention services and housing mobility programs. The usefulness of these efforts for exploring policy-relevant issues (child support enforcement, work requirements for welfare recipients, antipoverty strategies, housing subsidies and relocation, availability of child care, child-care subsidies) are discussed.

The neighborhoods they live in: the effects of neighborhood residence on child and adolescent outcomes.

This article provides a comprehensive review of research on the effects of neighborhood residence on child and adolescent well-being. The first section reviews key methodological issues. The following section considers links between neighborhood characteristics and child outcomes and suggests the importance of high socioeconomic status (SES) for achievement and low SES and residential instability for behavioral/emotional outcomes. The third section identifies 3 pathways (institutional resources, relationships, and norms/collective efficacy) through which neighborhoods might influence development, and which represent an extension of models identified by C. Jencks and S. Mayer (1990) and R. J. Sampson (1992). The models provide a theoretical base for studying neighborhood mechanisms and specify different levels (individual, family, school, peer, community) at which processes may operate. Implications for an emerging developmental framework for research on neighborhoods are discussed.

Concurrent child health status and maternal recall of events in infancy.

BACKGROUND: Obtaining information on children's health and health events is heavily dependent on maternal report. Experience as to what factors influence accuracy of reporting varies, and few studies have examined the influence of current child health status on recall. METHODS: A prospective cohort study involving 1833 children who were assessed in infancy and at 8 to 10 years of age was conducted to assess maternal reports of birth weight, gestational age, neonatal transport, length of neonatal hospitalization, and rehospitalizations in the first year compared with data collected in infancy overall, and as a function of concurrent child functional health status, socioemotional health, and ratings of child health. RESULTS: Maternal recall of neonatal events was accurate but not that of rehospitalizations in the first year. Concurrent child health problems affected accuracy but not sufficiently to make information unusable. CONCLUSION: Maternal recall of neonatal events 8 to 10 years later is accurate; however, the influence of current child health status on recall may be important in research on the cognitive processes underlying health questionnaire responses.

The Home Instruction Program for Preschool Youngsters (HIPPY).

The Home Instruction Program for Preschool Youngsters (HIPPY) is a two-year home-based early education intervention program designed to help parents with limited formal education prepare their four- and five-year-old children for school. This article begins with a brief overview of the HIPPY program and then presents the findings from a series of interconnected research studies, including a two-site, two-cohort evaluation in New York and Arkansas, a one-site case study, and a three-site qualitative study. With respect to program effectiveness, results varied across the New York and Arkansas sites and across participating cohorts at each site. For Cohort I, children who had been enrolled in HIPPY scored higher than children in the control/comparison groups on measures of cognitive skills (New York), classroom adaptation (New York and Arkansas), and standardized reading (New York); and more children were promoted to first grade (Arkansas). For Cohort II, comparison group children outperformed HIPPY children on school readiness and standardized achievement at posttest (Arkansas). Analyses to account for the differing results between cohorts were inconclusive. Qualitative analyses revealed considerable variation in parent involvement in HIPPY. Program staff identified four patterns of attrition from HIPPY: (1) early attrition within the first month after enrollment, (2) attrition between the program's first and second years, (3) attrition due to changes in the life circumstances of participating families, and (4) attrition due to turnover among the home visitors. Families were more likely to participate in in-home than out-of-home aspects of the program (for example, group meetings), but different family characteristics were associated with participation in the in- and out-of-home aspects of the program. The authors conclude with recommendations for future practice and research.