Investigation of human sewage pollution and pathogen analysis at Florida Gulf coast beaches.

AIMS: Water quality at two Florida beaches was compared using faecal indicator bacteria measurements, microbial source tracking (MST) methods for detecting human source pollution and the assessment of pathogen presence. These values were also compared before and after remediation of wastewater infrastructure at one beach. METHODS AND RESULTS: Faecal coliforms, Escherichia coli and enterococci were enumerated in estuarine water and sediment samples. PCR assays for the human-associated esp gene of Enterococcus faecium and human polyomaviruses (HPyVs) were used to detect human sewage. Culturable Salmonella and enteric viruses were also analysed. MST identified human sewage contamination at one beach, leading to repair of a sewer main and relocation of portable restrooms. Exceedances of Florida recreational water regulatory standards were significantly reduced after remediation (by 52% for faecal coliforms and 39% for enterococci), and the frequency of detection of MST markers decreased. Coxsackie virus B4 and HPyVs were codetected following a major sewage spill, but Salmonella was not detected during the study. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that infrastructure remediation significantly reduced pollution from human sewage at the impacted beach. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: A comprehensive microbial water quality study that can identify contamination sources through the use of MST markers and close collaboration with local/and state agencies can result in tangible actions to improve recreational water quality and safety.

Application of microbial source tracking methods in a Gulf of Mexico field setting.

AIMS: Microbial water quality and possible human sources of faecal pollution were assessed in a Florida estuary that serves shellfishing and recreational activities. METHODS AND RESULTS: Indicator organisms (IO), including faecal coliforms, Escherichia coli and enterococci, were quantified from marine and river waters, sediments and oysters. Florida recreational water standards were infrequently exceeded (6-10% of samples); however, shellfishing standards were more frequently exceeded (28%). IO concentrations in oysters and overlaying waters were significantly correlated, but oyster and sediment IO concentrations were uncorrelated. The human-associated esp gene of Enterococcus faecium was detected in marine and fresh waters at sites with suspected human sewage contamination. Lagrangian drifters, used to determine the pathways of bacterial transport and deposition, suggested that sediment deposition from the Ochlockonee River contributes to frequent detection of esp at a Gulf of Mexico beach. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that human faecal pollution affects water quality in Wakulla County and that local topography and hydrology play a role in bacterial transport and deposition. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: A combination of IO enumeration, microbial source tracking methods and regional hydrological study can reliably inform regulatory agencies of IO sources, improving risk assessment and pollution mitigation in impaired waters.

Confirmation of putative stormwater impact on water quality at a Florida beach by microbial source tracking methods and structure of indicator organism populations.

The effect of a stormwater conveyance system on indicator bacteria levels at a Florida beach was assessed using microbial source tracking methods, and by investigating indicator bacteria population structure in water and sediments. During a rain event, regulatory standards for both fecal coliforms and Enterococcus spp. were exceeded, contrasting with significantly lower levels under dry conditions. Indicator bacteria levels were high in sediments under all conditions. The involvement of human sewage in the contamination was investigated using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays for the esp gene of Enterococcus faecium and for the conserved T antigen of human polyomaviruses, all of which were negative. BOX-PCR subtyping of Escherichia coli and Enterococcus showed higher population diversity during the rain event; and higher population similarity during dry conditions, suggesting that without fresh inputs, only a subset of the population survives the selective pressure of the secondary habitat. These data indicate that high indicator bacteria levels were attributable to a stormwater system that acted as a reservoir and conduit, flushing high levels of indicator bacteria to the beach during a rain event. Such environmental reservoirs of indicator bacteria further complicate the already questionable relationship between indicator organisms and human pathogens, and call for a better understanding of the ecology, fate and persistence of indicator bacteria.

The concept of crisis: its utility for nursing.

The concept of crisis is important to nursing; yet, discrepancies exist in the way the term is viewed conceptually and applied clinically. This lack of clarity makes systematic research more difficult. In this article, crisis intervention theory is used to describe the concept of emotional crisis. Traditional and more recent constitutive definitions are discussed using related theories of stress and threat. The utility of crisis for nursing is outlined with a focus on crisis as a continuous entity as opposed to the dichotomous variable it is often considered to be. Implications for research and clinical practice are explored.