The Aetion Coalition to Advance Real-World Evidence through Randomized Controlled Trial Emulation Initiative: Oncology.

Legislative and technological advancements over the past decade have given rise to the proliferation of healthcare data generated from routine clinical practice, often referred to as real-world data (RWD). These data have piqued the interest of healthcare stakeholders due to their potential utility in generating evidence to support clinical and regulatory decision making. In the oncology setting, studies leveraging RWD offer distinct advantages that are complementary to randomized controlled trials (RCTs). They also permit the conduct of investigations that may not be possible through prospective designs due to ethics or feasibility. Despite its promise, the use of RWD for the generation of clinical evidence remains controversial due to concerns of unmeasured confounding and other sources of bias that must be carefully addressed in the study design and analysis. To facilitate a better understanding of when RWD can provide reliable conclusions on drug effectiveness, we seek to conduct 10 RWD-based studies that emulate RCTs in oncology using a systematic, protocol-driven approach described herein. Results of this investigation will help inform clinical, scientific, and regulatory stakeholders on the applications of RWD in the context of product labeling expansion, drug safety, and comparative effectiveness in oncology.

Prognosis and oncogenomic profiling of patients with tropomyosin receptor kinase fusion cancer in the 100,000 genomes project.

INTRODUCTION: Neurotrophic tyrosine receptor kinase (NTRK) gene fusions are oncogenic drivers in various tumor types. Limited data exist on the overall survival (OS) of patients with tumors with NTRK gene fusions and on the co-occurrence of NTRK fusions with other oncogenic drivers. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This retrospective study included patients enrolled in the Genomics England 100,000 Genomes Project who had linked clinical data from UK databases. Patients who had undergone tumor whole genome sequencing between March 2016 and July 2019 were included. Patients with and without NTRK fusions were matched. OS was analyzed along with oncogenic alterations in ALK, BRAF, EGFR, ERBB2, KRAS, and ROS1, and tumor mutation burden (TMB) and microsatellite instability (MSI). RESULTS: Of 15,223 patients analyzed, 38 (0.25%) had NTRK gene fusions in 11 tumor types, the most common were breast cancer, colorectal cancer (CRC), and sarcoma. Median OS was not reached in both the NTRK gene fusion-positive and -negative groups (hazard ratio 1.47, 95% CI 0.39-5.57, P = 0.572). A KRAS mutation was identified in two (5%) patients with NTRK gene fusions, and both had hepatobiliary cancer. High TMB and MSI were both more common in patients with NTRK gene fusions, due to the CRC subset. While there was a higher risk of death in patients with NTRK gene fusions compared to those without, the difference was not statistically significant. CONCLUSION: This study supports the hypothesis that NTRK gene fusions are primary oncogenic drivers and the co-occurrence of NTRK gene fusions with other oncogenic alterations is rare.

Real-world outcomes of second novel hormonal therapy or radium-223 following first novel hormonal therapy for mCRPC.

Aim: To evaluate real-world clinical outcomes of radium-223 or alternative novel hormonal therapy (NHT) following first-line NHT for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). Patients & methods: Retrospective analysis of the US Flatiron database (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03896984). Results: In the radium-223 cohort (n = 120) versus the alternative NHT cohort (n = 226), proportionally more patients had prior symptomatic skeletal events and bone-only metastases, and first-line NHT duration was shorter. Following second-line therapy, 49 versus 39% of patients received subsequent life-prolonging therapy; of these, 47 versus 76% received taxane. Median overall survival was 10.8 versus 11.2 months. Conclusion: Real-world patients with mCRPC had similar median overall survival following second-line radium-223 or alternative NHT after first-line NHT. Many patients received subsequent therapy, with less taxane use after radium-223.

Lay abstract Patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer are often first treated with novel hormonal therapy (NHT) using abiraterone or enzalutamide. To aid decisions about what treatment to use next, we reviewed information about patients who were treated with an alternative NHT (226 patients) or the nuclear medicine radium-223 (120 patients) after the first NHT. Most patients given radium-223 had cancer that had spread to their bones only, whereas many patients given an alternative NHT had cancer in their bones and other parts of their body. Around one in four patients given radium-223 and one in five given an alternative NHT had symptoms related to their bone metastases after starting treatment. Five in every ten patients given radium-223 received further therapy, including chemotherapy in 50% of these patients, while four in every ten patients given an alternative NHT received further therapy, including chemotherapy in 75%. On average, patients lived for almost a year after starting radium-223 or an alternative NHT.

Recent real-world treatment patterns and outcomes in US patients with relapsed/refractory multiple myeloma.

BACKGROUND: In patients with relapsed/refractory multiple myeloma (RRMM) previously receiving 1-3 therapy lines, newer agents demonstrated improved outcomes versus older agents. Real-world treatment pattern data are limited. We assessed real-world treatment patterns and outcomes in patients with RRMM (≥2 prior therapy lines). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: An electronic medical record (EMR) analysis and chart review were conducted using International Oncology Network (ION) EMR data. Patients ≥18 years old initiating first-line MM treatment 1 January 2011, to 31 May 2017, were stratified into older/newer treatment cohorts (approval date before vs during/after 2012). Treatment patterns and outcomes were described; no statistical tests were performed. RESULTS: In the EMR analysis (n = 1601) and chart review (n = 456), bortezomib, lenalidomide, and bortezomib-lenalidomide combinations dominated first-line treatment. Median real-world progression-free survival (rwPFS) was 12.0 to 3.5 months (first- to fifth-line), and median real-world overall survival (rwOS) was 48.2 to 5.8 months. A trend for increased rwPFS/rwOS with newer versus older treatments was observed. Most common AEs were fatigue, bone pain, and anemia. EXPERT OPINION: Real-world data describing treatment patterns in relapsed/refractory multiple myeloma are limited. Evaluation of new treatments on patient outcomes will influence treatment patterns and patient outcomes in the real-world setting. CONCLUSIONS: Although a trend for improved rwPFS and rwOS with newer versus older treatments was suggested, additional treatment options to improve patient outcomes are needed.

Warfarin Management and Outcomes in Patients with Nonvalvular Atrial Fibrillation Within an Integrated Health Care System.

BACKGROUND: Warfarin is a common treatment option to manage patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF) in clinical practice. Understanding current pharmacist-led anticoagulation clinic management patterns and associated outcomes is important for quality improvement; however, currently little evidence associating outcomes with management patterns exists. OBJECTIVES: To (a) describe warfarin management patterns and (b) evaluate associations between warfarin treatment and clinical outcomes for patients with NVAF in an integrated health care system. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study was conducted among NVAF patients with warfarin therapy between January 1, 2006, and December 31, 2011, using Kaiser Permanente Southern California data, and followed until December 31, 2013. Management patterns related to international normalized ratio (INR) monitoring, anticoagulation clinic pharmacist intervention (consultation), and warfarin dose adjustments were investigated along with yearly attrition rates, time-in-therapeutic ranges (TTRs), and clinical outcomes (stroke or systemic embolism and major bleeding). Descriptive statistics and multivariable Cox proportional hazard models were used to determine associations between TTR and clinical outcomes. RESULTS: A total of 32,074 NVAF patients on warfarin treatment were identified and followed for a median of 3.8 years. About half (49%) of the patients were newly initiating warfarin therapy. INR monitoring and pharmacist interventions were conducted roughly every 3 weeks after 6 months of warfarin treatment. Sixty-three percent of the study population had ≥ 1 warfarin dose adjustments with a mean (SD) of 6.7 (6.3) annual dose adjustments. Warfarin dose adjustments occurred at a median of 1 day (interquartile ranges [IQR] 1-3) after the INR measurement. Yearly attrition rate was from 3.3% to 6.3% during the follow-up, and median (IQR) TTR was 61% (46%-73%). Patients who received frequent INR monitoring (≥ 27 times per year), pharmacist interventions (≥ 24 times per year), or frequently adjusted warfarin dose (≥ 11 times per year) consistently showed poor TTRs (mean TTR for the highest quartiles was 45.3%-48.3%). A higher TTR was associated with a lower risk of clinical outcomes regardless of frequency of INR monitoring, pharmacist interventions, or number of dose adjustments. Patients whose TTRs were < 65%, even with frequent pharmacist interventions, had similar stroke or systemic embolism event rates, as compared with patients with TTRs < 65% and less frequent interventions (1.88 vs. 1.54 stroke or systemic embolism rates per 100 person-years, respectively, P = 0.78). The lowest TTR quartile (< 46%) was associated with a 3 times higher risk of stroke or systemic embolism (hazard ratio [HR] = 3.19, 95% CI = 2.71-3.77) and a 2 times higher risk of major bleeding (HR = 2.10, 95% CI = 1.96-2.24) compared with the highest TTR quartile (≥ 73%). CONCLUSIONS: Despite close monitoring with timely warfarin dose adjustments, there were still a substantial number of challenging patients whose TTRs were suboptimal despite a higher number of pharmacist interventions. These patients eventually experienced more stroke or systemic embolism and bleeding events among NVAF patients managed by anticoagulation clinics. New individualized treatment or management strategies for patients who are not able to reach optimal therapeutic ranges are necessary to improve outcomes. DISCLOSURES: This research and manuscript were funded by Bristol-Myers Squibb Company and Pfizer. Authors from Bristol-Myers Squibb Company and Pfizer participated in the design of the study, interpretation of the data, review/revision of the manuscript, and approval of the final version of the manuscript. An received a grant for research support from Bristol-Myers Squibb/Pfizer. Niu, Rashid, and Zheng received a grant from Bristol-Myers Squibb/Pfizer to their institutions for salary reimbursement. Vo, Singh, and Aranda are employed by Bristol-Myers Squibb; Bruno was employed by Bristol-Myers Squibb at the time of this study. Mendes and Dills are employed by Pfizer, and Mendes was a member of the Pfizer Cardiovascular and Metabolic Field Medical Team during the time of this study. Lang, Jazdzewski, and Le have no known conflicts of interest to report. Study concept and design were contributed primarily by An and Rashid, along with the other authors. Niu took the lead in data collection, along with Zheng, and data interpretation was performed by An, along with Mendes and Dills, with assistance from the other authors. The manuscript was written by An and revised by Mendes, Dills, Vo, Singh, Bruno, and Aranda, along with Lang, Le, and Jazdezewski. Part of this study's findings was presented at the CHEST 2015 Annual Meeting in Montreal, Canada, on October 28, 2015.

Major bleeding risk among non-valvular atrial fibrillation patients initiated on apixaban, dabigatran, rivaroxaban or warfarin: a "real-world" observational study in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Limited data are available about the real-world safety of non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants (NOACs). OBJECTIVES: To compare the major bleeding risk among newly anticoagulated non-valvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF) patients initiating apixaban, warfarin, dabigatran or rivaroxaban in the United States. METHODS AND RESULTS: A retrospective cohort study was conducted to compare the major bleeding risk among newly anticoagulated NVAF patients initiating warfarin, apixaban, dabigatran or rivaroxaban. The study used the Truven MarketScan(®) Commercial & Medicare supplemental US database from 1 January 2013 through 31 December 2013. Major bleeding was defined as bleeding requiring hospitalisation. Cox model estimated hazard ratios (HRs) of major bleeding were adjusted for age, gender, baseline comorbidities and co-medications. Among 29 338 newly anticoagulated NVAF patients, 2402 (8.19%) were on apixaban; 4173 (14.22%) on dabigatran; 10 050 (34.26%) on rivaroxaban; and 12 713 (43.33%) on warfarin. After adjusting for baseline characteristics, initiation on warfarin [adjusted HR (aHR): 1.93, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.12-3.33, P=.018] or rivaroxaban (aHR: 2.19, 95% CI: 1.26-3.79, P=.005) had significantly greater risk of major bleeding vs apixaban. Dabigatran initiation (aHR: 1.71, 95% CI: 0.94-3.10, P=.079) had a non-significant major bleeding risk vs apixaban. When compared with warfarin, apixaban (aHR: 0.52, 95% CI: 0.30-0.89, P=.018) had significantly lower major bleeding risk. Patients initiating rivaroxaban (aHR: 1.13, 95% CI: 0.91-1.41, P=.262) or dabigatran (aHR: 0.88, 95% CI: 0.64-1.21, P=.446) had a non-significant major bleeding risk vs warfarin. CONCLUSION: Among newly anticoagulated NVAF patients in the real-world setting, initiation with rivaroxaban or warfarin was associated with a significantly greater risk of major bleeding compared with initiation on apixaban. When compared with warfarin, initiation with apixaban was associated with significantly lower risk of major bleeding. Additional observational studies are required to confirm these findings.

Physician and Patient Preferences for Nonvalvular Atrial Fibrillation Therapies.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to compare patient and physician preferences for different antithrombotic therapies used to treat nonvalvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF). METHODS: Patients diagnosed with NVAF and physicians treating such patients completed 12 discrete choice questions comparing NVAF therapies that varied across five attributes: stroke risk, major bleeding risk, convenience (no regular blood testing/dietary restrictions), dosing frequency, and patients' out-of-pocket cost. We used a logistic regression to estimate the willingness-to-pay (WTP) value for each attribute. RESULTS: The 200 physicians surveyed were willing to trade off $38 (95% confidence interval [CI] $22 to $54] in monthly out-of-pocket cost for a 1% (absolute) decrease in stroke risk, $14 (95% CI $8 to $21) for a 1% decrease in major bleeding risk, and $34 (95% CI $9 to $60) for more convenience. The WTP value among 201 patients surveyed was $30 (95% CI $18 to $42) for reduced stroke risk, $16 (95% CI $9 to $24) for reduced bleeding risk, and -$52 (95% CI -$96 to -6) for convenience. The WTP value for convenience among patients using warfarin was $9 (95% CI $1 to $18) for more convenience, whereas patients not currently on warfarin had a WTP value of -$90 (95% CI -$290 to -$79). Both physicians' and patients' WTP value for once-daily dosing was not significantly different from zero. On the basis of survey results, 85.0% of the physicians preferred novel oral anticoagulants (NOACs) to warfarin. NOACs (73.0%) were preferred among patients using warfarin, but warfarin (78.2%) was preferred among patients not currently using warfarin. Among NOACs, both patients and physicians preferred apixaban. CONCLUSIONS: Both physicians and patients currently using warfarin preferred NOACs to warfarin. Patients not currently using warfarin preferred warfarin over NOACs because of an apparent preference for regular blood testing/dietary restrictions.

Comparison of hospital length of stay and hospitalization costs among patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation treated with apixaban or warfarin: An early view.

OBJECTIVE: To quantify and compare hospital length of stay (LOS) and costs between hospitalized non-valvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF) patients treated with either apixaban or warfarin via a large claims database. METHODS: Adult patients hospitalized with AF were selected from the Premier Perspective Claims Database (01JAN2013-31MARCH2014). Patients with evidence of valvular heart disease, valve replacement procedures, or pregnancy during the index hospitalization were excluded. Patients treated with apixaban or warfarin during hospitalization were identified. Propensity score matching (PSM) was performed to control for baseline imbalances between patients treated with apixaban or warfarin. Primary outcomes were hospital LOS (days), post-medication administration LOS, and index hospitalization costs, and were compared using paired t-tests in the matched sample. RESULTS: Before PSM, 2894 apixaban and 124,174 warfarin patients were identified. Patients treated with warfarin were older and sicker compared to those treated with apixaban. After applying PSM, a total of 2886 patients were included in each cohort, and baseline characteristics were balanced. The mean (standard deviation [SD] and median) hospital LOS was significantly (p = 0.002) shorter for patients treated with apixaban for 5.1 days (5.7 and 3) compared to warfarin for 5.5 days (4.8 and 4). The trend appeared consistent in the hospital LOS from point of apixaban or warfarin administration to discharge (4.5 vs 4.7 days, p = 0.051). Patients administered apixaban incurred significantly lower hospitalization costs compared to those administered warfarin ($11,262 vs $12,883; p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Among NVAF patients, apixaban treatment was associated with significantly shorter hospital LOS and lower costs when compared to warfarin treatment.

Warfarin time in therapeutic range and its impact on healthcare resource utilization and costs among patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation.

BACKGROUND: Warfarin is efficacious for reducing stroke risk among patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF). However, the efficacy and safety of warfarin are influenced by its time in therapeutic range (TTR). OBJECTIVE: To assess differences in healthcare resource utilization and costs among NVAF patients with low (<60%) and high (≥60%) warfarin TTRs in an integrated delivery network (IDN) setting. METHODS: Patients with NVAF were identified from an electronic medical record database. Patients were required to have ≥6 international normalized prothrombin time ratio (INR) tests. NVAF patients were grouped into two cohorts: those with warfarin TTR <60% (low TTR) and those with warfarin TTR ≥60% (high TTR). Healthcare resource utilization and costs were evaluated during a 12 month follow-up period. Multivariable regressions were used to assess the impact of different warfarin TTRs on healthcare costs. RESULTS: Among the study population, greater than half (54%, n = 1595) had a low TTR, and 46% (n = 1356) had a high TTR. Total all-cause healthcare resource utilization was higher among patients in the low TTR cohort vs. the high TTR cohort (number of encounters: 70.2 vs. 56.1, p < 0.001). After adjusting for patient characteristics, total all-cause healthcare costs and stroke-related healthcare costs were $2398 (p < 0.001) and $687 (p = 0.02) higher, respectively, for patients in the low TTR cohort vs. the high TTR cohort. LIMITATIONS: In this retrospective study, we were only able to evaluate the association and not the causality between healthcare resource utilization and costs with the different warfarin TTRs. CONCLUSION: Many warfarin-treated NVAF patients have a low warfarin TTR. NVAF patients with low vs. patients with high warfarin TTR used healthcare resources to a greater extent, which was reflected in higher healthcare costs.

An early evaluation of bleeding-related hospital readmissions among hospitalized patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation treated with direct oral anticoagulants.

OBJECTIVE: Clinical trials have demonstrated that direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) are efficacious in reducing stroke risk among patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF) with differences in the reduction of bleeding risks vs. warfarin. The objective of this study was to assess bleeding-related hospital readmissions among hospitalized NVAF patients treated with dabigatran, rivaroxaban, and apixaban in the US. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Patients (≥18 years) with a discharge diagnosis of NVAF who received apixaban, dabigatran, or rivaroxaban during hospitalization were identified from the Premier Hospital database (1 January 2012-31 March 2014) and the Cerner Health Facts hospital database (1 January 2012-31 August 2014). Patients identified from each database were analyzed separately and grouped into three cohorts depending on which DOAC was received. Patient characteristics, hospital resource use and costs, and frequency of readmissions within 1 month were evaluated. RESULTS: Among study populations identified from the Premier database (N = 74,730) and the Cerner database (N = 14,201), patients who received apixaban were older, had greater comorbidity, and had higher stroke and bleeding risks. After controlling for patient characteristics, including comorbidity and stroke and bleeding risks, compared with patients who received apixaban during their index hospitalizations, the odds of bleeding-related hospital readmissions were significantly greater by 1.4-fold (p < 0.01) for patients who received rivaroxaban and 1.2-fold (p = 0.16) numerically greater for patients who received dabigatran among patients identified from the Premier Hospital database. Among patients in the Cerner Health Facts hospital database, bleeding-related hospital readmissions were significantly greater by 1.6-fold (p = 0.04) for patients who received rivaroxaban and 1.3-fold (p = 0.30) numerically greater for patients who received dabigatran compared to patients who received apixaban. LIMITATIONS: No causal relationship between treatment and outcomes can be concluded. CONCLUSIONS: NVAF patients using different DOACs had different characteristics, including stroke and bleeding risks. Use of rivaroxaban, compared to apixaban was associated with significantly greater risk of bleeding-related readmissions across two database claims analyses.

Real-World Medical Cost Avoidance When New Oral Anticoagulants are Used Versus Warfarin for Venous Thromboembolism in the United States.

OBJECTIVE: Real-world medical cost avoidances from a US payer perspective were estimated when new oral anticoagulants (NOACs) are used instead of warfarin for the treatment of patients with venous thromboembolism (VTE). METHODS: Reductions in real-world event rates of recurrent VTE and MB were obtained by applying rate reductions from the NOACs versus warfarin trials to the Worcester population. Incremental annual medical costs among patients with VTE and MB from a US payer perspective were obtained from the literature or claims databases. Differences in total medical costs for patients treated with NOACs versus warfarin were then estimated. Univariate and Monte Carlo sensitivity analyses were additionally carried out. RESULTS: The annual total medical cost avoidances versus warfarin were greatest for VTE patients treated with apixaban (-US$4440 per patient-year [ppy]), followed by those treated with rivaroxaban (-US$2971 ppy), edoxaban (-US$1957 ppy), and dabigatran (-US$572 ppy). The medical cost avoidances remained consistent under sensitivity analyses. CONCLUSION: Based on real-world data, when any of the evaluated NOACs are used instead of warfarin for treatment of patients with acute VTE, annual medical costs are reduced. Of the NOACs, apixaban has the greatest real-world medical cost avoidance, as its use is associated with substantial reductions in both VTE and MB event rates.

Incremental Health Care Burden of Bleeding Among Patients with Venous Thromboembolism in the United States.

BACKGROUND: The health care and economic burden of venous thromboembolism (VTE) has been evaluated in regard to acute VTE, VTE recurrence, and some VTE complications, such as postthrombotic syndrome, but the cost burden attributed to bleedings is not well understood. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate health care resource utilization and costs associated with major bleeding (MB) and clinically relevant nonmajor bleeding (CRNMB) among a large U.S. commercially and Medicare-insured population with VTE. METHODS: Patients (≥ 18 years of age, continuously insured) with a diagnosis of VTE between January 1, 2008, and December 31, 2011, were identified from the Truven Health Analytics Commercial and Medicare MarketScan databases. Patients who did not have any bleedings during the study period were grouped into a no-bleedings cohort and a random date after VTE diagnosis was selected as the index date. VTE patients who experienced MB within 1 year of the initial VTE diagnosis were grouped into a MB cohort, and patients without MB but with CRNMB were grouped into a CRNMB cohort. Baseline patient demographics and clinical characteristics were determined for study cohorts. All-cause and bleeding-related health care resource utilization and costs (inflation adjusted to 2013 level) during a 12-month follow-up period after the index date of the initial bleeding event were measured and compared. Descriptive statistics were used to evaluate differences in demographics, clinical characteristics, and unadjusted health care resource utilization and costs of patient cohorts. Multivariable generalized linear models were used to evaluate incremental health care costs of bleedings after adjusting for key patient characteristics.   RESULTS: Among the 112,885 patients identified with a VTE diagnosis, 14% (n = 15,897) had MB and 14% (n = 15,842) had CRNMB; 72% (n = 81,146) had neither of these events occur during the study period. The mean ages of the MB and CRNMB cohorts were both 63.6 years, while the mean age of the no-bleedings cohort was significantly lower at 59.6 years (P less than 0.001). Mean Charlson Comorbidity Index scores were highest for the MB cohort (3.2), followed by those of the CRNMB cohort (2.5) and the no-bleedings cohort (1.6). The MB cohort had the greatest proportion of patients with an initial VTE event of pulmonary embolism only (23.5%), followed by that of the CRNMB cohort (20.2%), and the no-bleedings cohort (16.7%). For MB and CRNMB cohorts, the total mean bleeding-related inpatient and outpatient costs during the follow-up period were $49,779 (SE = $820) and $2,187 ($89), respectively. After adjustment for key patient characteristics, the estimated mean differences in total bleeding-related medical costs were $45,367 ($1,853) for patients with MB and $2,140 ($88) for patients with CRNMB versus patients with no bleedings. CONCLUSIONS: Among patients with VTE diagnosis in the United States, approximately 28% have a bleeding event within 1 year of VTE diagnosis, and about half of these patients experience MB. Patients with MB have greatly elevated health care costs.

Comparison of hospital length of stay between hospitalized non-valvular atrial fibrillation patients treated with either apixaban or warfarin.

BACKGROUND: Hospital length of stay (LOS) is an important cost driver for hospitals and payers alike. Hospitalized non-valvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF) patients treated with apixaban may have shorter LOS than those treated with warfarin because of the absence of need for INR monitoring in apixaban. Thus, this study compared hospital LOS between hospitalized NVAF patients treated with either apixaban or warfarin. METHODS: This was a retrospective, observational cohort study based on a large US database including diagnosis, procedure, and drug administration information from >600 acute-care hospitals. Patients selected for study were aged ≥18 years and had a hospitalization record with an ICD-9-CM diagnosis code for atrial fibrillation (AF) in any position from 1 January 2013 to 28 February 2014 (index hospitalization). Patients with diagnoses indicative of rheumatic mitral valvular heart disease or a valve replacement procedure during index hospitalization were excluded. Patients were required to have been treated with either apixaban or warfarin, and not treated with rivaroxaban or dabigatran, during index hospitalization. Apixaban patients were propensity score (PS) matched to warfarin patients at a 1:1 ratio, using patient demographic/clinical and hospital characteristics. The study outcome was hospital LOS, calculated as discharge date minus admission date; a sensitivity analysis calculated hospital LOS as discharge date minus first anticoagulant administration date. Sub-analyses were conducted among patients with a primary diagnosis of AF. RESULTS: The study included 832 apixaban patients matched to 832 warfarin patients. Mean [standard deviation (SD)] and median hospital LOS were significantly (p < 0.001) shorter in apixaban patients (4.5 [4.2] and 3 days) than in warfarin patients (5.4 [5.0] and 4). Results were consistent in the sensitivity and sub-analyses. CONCLUSIONS: Among NVAF patients, apixaban treatment was associated with shorter hospital LOS when compared with warfarin treatment. These findings may have important clinical and economic implications for hospitals, payers, and patients.

Stroke and Bleeding Risk Associated With Antithrombotic Therapy for Patients With Nonvalvular Atrial Fibrillation in Clinical Practice.

BACKGROUND: The quality of antithrombotic therapy for patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation during routine medical care is often suboptimal. Evidence linking stroke and bleeding risk with antithrombotic treatment is limited. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the associations between antithrombotic treatment episodes and outcomes. METHODS AND RESULTS: A retrospective longitudinal observational cohort study was conducted using patients newly diagnosed with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation with 1 or more stroke risk factors (CHADS2 ≥1) in Kaiser Permanente Southern California between January 1, 2006 and December 31, 2011. A total of 1782 stroke and systemic embolism (SE) and 3528 major bleed events were identified from 23 297 patients during the 60 021 person-years of follow-up. The lowest stroke/SE rates and major bleed rates were observed in warfarin time in therapeutic range (TTR) ≥55% episodes (stroke/SE: 0.87 [0.71 to 1.04]; major bleed: 4.91 [4.53 to 5.28] per 100 person-years), which was similar to the bleed rate in aspirin episodes (4.95 [4.58 to 5.32] per 100 person-years). The warfarin TTR ≥55% episodes were associated with a 77% lower risk of stroke/SE (relative risk=0.23 [0.18 to 0.28]) compared to never on therapy; and the warfarin TTR <55% and on-aspirin episodes were associated with a 20% lower and with a 26% lower risk of stroke/SE compared to never on therapy, respectively. The warfarin TTR <55% episodes were associated with nearly double the risk of a major bleed compared to never on therapy (relative risk=1.93 [1.74 to 2.14]). CONCLUSIONS: Continuation of antithrombotic therapy as well as maintaining an adequate level of TTR is beneficial to prevent strokes while minimizing bleeding events.

Comparison of differences in medical costs when new oral anticoagulants are used for the treatment of patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation and venous thromboembolism vs warfarin or placebo in the US.

OBJECTIVE: Medical costs that may be avoided when any of the four new oral anticoagulants (NOACs), dabigatran, rivaroxaban, apixaban, and edoxaban, are used instead of warfarin for the treatment of non-valvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF) were estimated and compared. Additionally, the overall differences in medical costs were estimated for NVAF and venous thromboembolism (VTE) patient populations combined. METHODS: Medical cost differences associated with NOAC use vs warfarin or placebo among NVAF and VTE patients were estimated based on clinical event rates obtained from the published trial data. The clinical event rates were calculated as the percentage of patients with each of the clinical events during the trial periods. Univariate and multivariate sensitivity analyses were conducted for the medical-cost differences determined for NVAF patients. A hypothetical health plan population of 1 million members was used to estimate and compare the combined medical-cost differences of the NVAF and VTE populations and were projected in the years 2015-2018. RESULTS: In a year, the medical-cost differences associated with NOAC use instead of warfarin were estimated at -$204, -$140, -$495, and -$340 per patient for dabigatran, rivaroxaban, apixaban, and edoxaban, respectively. In 2014, among the hypothetical population, the medical-cost differences were -$3.7, -$4.2, -$11.5, and -$6.6 million for NVAF and acute VTE patients treated with dabigatran, rivaroxaban, apixaban, and edoxaban, respectively. In 2014, for the combined NVAF, acute VTE, and extended VTE patient populations, medical-cost differences were -$10.0, -$10.9, -$21.0, and -$21.0 million for dabigatran, rivaroxaban, 2.5 mg apixaban, and 5 mg apixaban, respectively. Medical-cost differences associated with use of NOACs were projected to steadily increase from 2014 to 2018. CONCLUSIONS: Medical costs are reduced when NOACs are used instead of warfarin/placebo for the treatment of NVAF or VTE, with apixaban being associated with the greatest reduction in medical costs.

Concomitant pharmacotherapy of psychotropic medications in EU children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

BACKGROUND: With preliminary data suggesting an increasing trend in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) prevalence in Europe, the use of psychotropic medications in this population needs to be better understood, particularly among patients with ADHD and no co-morbid psychiatric disorder. METHODS: Medical charts of patients aged 6-17 years with one or more ADHD diagnosis between January 1, 2004 and June 30, 2007, and use of ADHD medication were abstracted by physicians from six European countries. Patients with a history of epilepsy or diagnosis of Tourette syndrome were excluded. RESULTS: Among a convenience sample of 569 children/adolescent patients (mean age, 12.1 years), 80 (14.1 %) patients used psychotropic concomitant medication (PCM) along with their current on-label ADHD medication. The number of pre-existing co-morbidities, high impairment due to the symptom of anger, and country (France; Italy; the Netherlands; and Spain vs. the reference country, Germany) were significantly associated with PCM use (UK was not significantly different vs. Germany). In particular, in France, Italy, the Netherlands, and Spain, PCM use was highest. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that greater attention to the use of PCM, which are not indicated for the treatment of ADHD, may be warranted in children and adolescents receiving PCM. This highlights the need for further research to assess the impact of PCM use in ADHD patients and to consider alternative, individualized, indicated treatment strategies for patients with ADHD.

Economic and humanistic consequences of preventable bladder tumor recurrences in nonmuscle invasive bladder cancer cases.

PURPOSE: Perioperative intravesical chemotherapy following transurethral resection of bladder tumor has been underused despite level 1 evidence supporting its performance. The primary objective of this study was to estimate the economic and humanistic consequences associated with preventable recurrences in patients initially diagnosed with nonmuscle invasive bladder cancer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Using population based estimates of nonmuscle invasive bladder cancer incidence, a 2-year model was developed to estimate the number of preventable recurrences in eligible patients untreated with perioperative intravesical chemotherapy. Therapy utilization rates were obtained from a retrospective database analysis and a chart review study of 1,010 patients with nonmuscle invasive bladder cancer. Recurrence rates of nonmuscle invasive bladder cancer were obtained from a randomized clinical trial comparing transurethral resection of bladder tumor with or without perioperative mitomycin C. Costs were estimated using prevailing Medicare reimbursement rates. Quality adjusted life-year estimates and disutilities for complications were obtained from the literature. RESULTS: The model estimated that 7,827 bladder recurrences could be avoided if all patients received immediate intravesical chemotherapy. It estimated an economic savings of $3,847 per avoidable recurrence, resulting in an aggregate savings of $30.1 million. The model also estimated that 1,025 quality adjusted life-years are lost every 2 years due to preventable recurrences, resulting in 0.13 quality adjusted life-years (48 quality adjusted days) lost per avoidable recurrence. This translates into 0.02 quality adjusted life-years (8.1 quality adjusted days) lost per patient not receiving immediate intravesical chemotherapy. CONCLUSIONS: Greater use of immediate intravesical chemotherapy in the United States has the potential to substantially decrease the economic and humanistic burdens of nonmuscle invasive bladder cancer.

Surveillance and treatment of non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer in the USA.

Seventy percent of newly diagnosed bladder cancers are classified as non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) and are often associated with high rates of recurrence that require lifelong surveillance. Currently available treatment options for NMIBC are associated with toxicities that limit their use, and actual practice patterns vary depending upon physician and patient characteristics. In addition, bladder cancer has a high economic and humanistic burden in the United States (US) population and has been cited as one of the most costly cancers to treat. An unmet need exists for new treatment options associated with fewer complications, better patient compliance, and decreased healthcare costs. Increased prevention of recurrence through greater adherence to evidence-based guidelines and the development of novel therapies could therefore result in substantial savings to the healthcare system.

Hemoglobin trends and anemia treatment resulting from concomitant chemotherapy in community oncology clinics.

PURPOSE: This study describes changes in hemoglobin (Hb) levels in patients during chemotherapy before anemia treatment and in those who received no treatment, measuring time from chemotherapy initiation to Hb less than 10 g/dL and anemia treatment initiation. PATIENTS AND METHODS: This retrospective longitudinal cohort study used a database of outpatient oncology practice electronic medical records from January 1, 2006, to August 6, 2009. Unit of analysis was episode of chemotherapy care, beginning at initiation and including consecutive administrations within the next 60 days. Patients received two or more administrations of conventional chemotherapeutic agents, had a cancer diagnosis with at least 60 days of follow-up, and had no myelodysplastic syndrome. A total of 4,864 episodes (4,021 patients) met selection criteria, 73% with baseline Hb of 11 g/dL or greater and 60% receiving no anemia treatment. RESULTS: Episodes without anemia treatment increased from 44.6% (2006) to 77.8% (2009). Erythropoiesis-stimulating agent (ESA) use decreased from 45.4% (2006) to 11.5% (2009). Patients receiving transfusions increased from 3.4% to 8.7% (2006 to 2009; all P < .001). Total proportion of episodes with Hb less than 10 g/dL at anemia treatment increased from 16.2% to 93.1% during the same period (P < .001). Mean Hb values before anemia treatment decreased over time from 10.8 to 8.9 g/dL (2006 to 2009; P < .001). Overall, time from chemotherapy initiation to first anemia treatment increased from 24.7 to 36.9 days (2006 to 2009; P < .01). CONCLUSION: Results suggest increased restrictions were associated with decreased use of ESAs and increased use of transfusions as well as delays in anemia treatment and lower Hb levels before anemia treatment. Additional investigation of the overall impact of delayed treatments on long-term patient outcomes is warranted.

Sensitivity of medication use to formulary controls in medicare beneficiaries: a review of the literature.

BACKGROUND: Several studies have examined the impact of formulary management strategies on medication use in the elderly, but little has been done to synthesize the findings to determine whether the results show consistent trends. OBJECTIVE: To summarize the effects of formulary controls (ie, tiered copays, step edits, prior authorization, and generic substitution) on medication use in the Medicare population to inform future Medicare Part D and other coverage decisions. METHODS: This systematic review included research articles (found via PubMed, Google Scholar, and specific scientific journals) that evaluated the impact of drug coverage or cost-sharing on medication use in elderly (aged ≥65 years) Medicare beneficiaries. The impact of drug coverage was assessed by comparing patients with some drug coverage to those with no drug coverage or by comparing varying levels of drug coverage (eg, full coverage vs $1000 coverage or capped benefits vs noncapped benefits). Articles that were published before 1995, were not original empirical research, were published in languages other than English, or focused on populations other than Medicare beneficiaries were excluded. All studies selected were classified as positive, negative, or neutral based on the significance of the relationship (P <.05 or as otherwise specified) between the formulary control mechanism and the medication use, and on the direction of that relationship. RESULTS: Included were a total of 47 research articles (published between 1995 and 2009) that evaluated the impact of drug coverage or cost-sharing on medication use in Medicare beneficiaries. Overall, 24 studies examined the impact of the level of drug coverage on medication use; of these, 96% (N = 23) supported the association between better drug coverage (ie, branded and generic vs generic-only coverage, capped benefit vs noncapped benefit, supplemental drug insurance vs no supplemental drug insurance) or having some drug coverage and enhanced medication use. Furthermore, 84% (N = 16) of the 19 studies that examined the effect of cost-sharing on medication use demonstrated that decreased cost-sharing was significantly associated with improved medication use. CONCLUSION: Current evidence from the literature suggests that restricting drug coverage or increasing out-of-pocket expenses for Medicare beneficiaries may lead to decreased medication use in the elderly, with all its potential implications.