Detection of Rickettsia helvetica in ticks collected from European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus, Linnaeus, 1758).

The role of wild mammals in the dissemination and maintenance of Rickettsia in nature is still under investigation. European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) are often heavily infested by tick and flea species that are known to harbor and transmit different Rickettsia spp. We investigated ixodid ticks sampled from European hedgehogs for the presence of Rickettsia. A total of 471 Ixodes ricinus and 755 I. hexagonus were collected from 26 German and 7 British European hedgehogs. These were tested by a genus-specific real-time PCR assay targeting the citrate synthase gene (gltA). The rickettsia minimum infection rate was 11.7% with an increase detected with each parasitic tick stage. No significant difference in Rickettsia prevalence in the 2 Ixodes species was detected. Using sequencing of partial ompB, Rickettsia helvetica was the only species identified. More than half of the hedgehogs carried Rickettsia-positive ticks. In addition, tissue samples from 2/5 hedgehogs (where tissue DNA was available) were PCR-positive. These results show that European hedgehogs are exposed to R. helvetica via infected ticks and might be involved in the natural transmission cycle of this Rickettsia species.

The fecal odor of sick hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) mediates olfactory attraction of the tick Ixodes hexagonus.

Parasite loads of animals vary among individuals, but the underlying mechanisms have not been fully identified. Here, we investigated whether health status of hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) is correlated with tick burden, and whether chemical cues linked to the health status of the host mediate attraction of the tick Ixodes hexagonus. An ecological survey conducted over 10 years, involving 226 wild hedgehogs, revealed a strong association between health status and tick burden of hedgehogs, with healthy animals being less likely to carry ticks than unhealthy ones. Behavioral choice tests demonstrated that ticks display a preference for the fecal odor from sick hedgehogs compared with healthy ones. Chemical analysis of fecal odors using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry showed differences in the odor profile between sick and healthy hedgehogs. Sick animals tended to exhibit raised levels of the volatile aromatic heterocyclic compound indole in their feces. Ticks were attracted to indole when given the choice between indole and a solvent control. However, fecal matter from healthy hosts, with the addition of indole, was not attractive to ticks, suggesting that indole interacts with other, undetected compounds in mediating attraction. This study implies that it is the attraction to fecal odor that causes higher tick burdens in sick hedgehogs. Ticks might benefit from this preference by avoiding possible repulsion mechanisms of healthy hosts. We suggest that ticks potentially choose their host based on odor linked to the host's health status.

Skin disinfection and its efficacy before administering injections.

The need to disinfect a patient's skin before subcutaneous or intramuscular injection is a much debated practice. Guidance on this issue varies between NHS organisations that provide primary and secondary care. However, with patients being increasingly concerned with healthcare-associated infections, a general consensus needs to be reached whereby this practice is either rejected or made mandatory.

A review of the merits of the nurse practitioner role.

Over the past two decades, nurses have begun to undertake tasks and assume responsibilities traditionally associated with medicine. This has led to debate, particularly with regard to the extension of the nurse prescribing role. This article examines some of the key issues surrounding the advancement of nursing practice and the effect on the nursing and medical professions.

Sexuality and learning disabilities.

BACKGROUND: Sexuality and sexual health are issues that have been neglected in nursing practice and in the literature. This literature review discusses how the sexuality and sexual health of clients with learning disabilities are perceived and addressed in contemporary society. CONCLUSION: Sexuality and challenging behaviours, such as self-harm, can be linked and by denying or ignoring the sexual needs of clients there might be a case for professional negligence. The attitudes of staff and carers are important in understanding the sexual needs of clients and the shortfall in the education and training of nurses.

The effects of music on clients with learning disabilities: a literature review.

The aim of this paper was to promote the use of musical interventions with clients with learning disabilities. Musical interventions with this group of clients were found to be effective in reducing self-injurious behaviour, aggression and other behaviour, which challenge the service providers. Music was also found to have the potential to improve the communication skills of clients and to maintain their psychological well being. A review of the literature shows that music, though not widely used in the field of learning disabilities, can be an effective medium through which the quality of life of clients can be enhanced.