Regulation of estrogen receptor ß1 expression in breast cancer by epigenetic modification of the 5' regulatory region.

ERß1 is often down-regulated in breast cancer compared to normal breast but mechanisms surrounding this are unclear. We examined whether loss of heterozygosity (LOH) or methylation at ERß promoters (0N, 0K) and/or untranslated exon 0N were involved in ERß down-regulation in breast cancer tissues and cell lines and if treatment with the de-methylating agent 5-aza-deoxycytidine and/or the histone deacetylase inhibitor Trichostatin A could influence expression in vitro. We found no evidence of correlation between LOH at 14q22-24 (genomic locus containing ERß/ESR2), and ERß1 expression in primary breast cancers. A negative correlation between ERß1 mRNA expression and methylation status was observed for promoter 0N in BT-20, MDA-MB-453 and T47D cells. Promoter 0K was consistently unmethylated. In primary breast tumours, methylation of the untranslated exon 0N, downstream of promoter 0N, but not of promoter 0N itself, correlated with down-regulation of ERß. In MDA-MB-453 cells, treatment with 5-aza-deoxycytidine was sufficient to induce ERß1 expression from the 0N promoter while in BT-20 both agents were required. Examination of various sites on ESR2 highlighted epigenetic but not genetic regulation of ERß1. In particular methylation adjacent to promoter 0N was a key regulatory event for ERß1 silencing. A combination of de-methylating agents and histone deacetylase inhibitors fully restored ERß1 expression which may offer a novel therapeutic angle for breast cancer management.

Kinetic analysis of intracellular Hoechst 33342--DNA interactions by flow cytometry: misinterpretation of side population status?

We outline a simple approach involving instrument setup and calibration for the analysis of Hoechst dye 33342-loading in human cell lines for exploring heterogeneity in dye efflux efficiency and the status of side population (SP) A549 lung cancer cells. Dual excitation 488 nm/multiline UV (351-364 nm) flow cytometry was used to confirm ABCG2-specific inhibition of dye efflux using Fumitremorgin C. Transporter gene expression, assayed by qRT-PCR, confirmed higher expression of ABCG2 versus ABCB1, reiterated in a cloned subline. Coexpression of aldehyde dehydrogenase genes ranked as aldehyde dehydrogenase class 1A1 (ALDH1A1) > ALDH3A1 > ALDH3, relative expression of all genes was again reiterated in a cloned subline. Permeabilized cells were used to create red:violet (660:405 nm Em wavelengths) ratiometric references for mapping temporal changes in Hoechst 33342-DNA fluorescence in live cells. A live cell "kinetic SP gate" tracked progressive dye loading of the whole population and coapplication of the far red (>695 nm wavelength) fluorescing dye DRAQ7 enabled viable cell gating. Kinetic gating revealed a continuum for dye accumulation suggesting that SP enumeration is critically dependent upon the nonlinear relationship of the spectral shift with progressive dye-DNA binding and thus requires accurate definition. To this end, permeabilized cell reference samples permit reproducible instrument setup, guide gate boundaries for SP and compromised cells, and offer a simple means of comparing SP enumeration across laboratory sites/platforms. Our approach reports the dynamic range for the spectral shift, revealing noninformative staining conditions and explaining a source of variability for SP enumeration. We suggest that live cell kinetic sorting of all cells with the same dye:DNA load but with differences in efflux capacity can be used to explore drug resistance capability without prejudice. The SP phenotype should be regarded as a kinetic parameter and not a fixed characteristic--critical for functional assay design and the interpretation of heterogeneity.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of colchicine B-ring analogues tethered with halogenated benzyl moieties.

Deacetylcolchicine was reacted with substituted benzyl halides to provide a library of compounds for biological analysis. Compound 7 (3,4-difluorobenzyl-N-aminocolchicine) was shown to possess cytotoxicity in cancer cell lines in the low nanomolar range. Significantly, it showed no loss of activity in the resistant A2780AD ovarian carcinoma cell line known to overexpress the ABCB1 drug transporter and was also unaffected by overexpression of class III ß-tubulin in HeLa transfected cells.

Dietary, lifestyle and clinicopathological factors associated with APC mutations and promoter methylation in colorectal cancers from the EPIC-Norfolk study.

The tumour suppressor APC is the most commonly altered gene in colorectal cancer (CRC). Genetic and epigenetic alterations of APC may therefore be associated with dietary and lifestyle risk factors for CRC. Analysis of APC mutations in the extended mutation cluster region (codons 1276-1556) and APC promoter 1A methylation was performed on 185 archival CRC samples collected from participants of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer (EPIC)-Norfolk study, with the aim of relating these to high-quality seven-day dietary and lifestyle data collected prospectively. Truncating APC mutations (APC(+) ) and promoter 1A methylation (PM(+) ) were identified in 43% and 23% of CRCs analysed, respectively. Distal CRCs were more likely than proximal CRCs to be APC(+) or PM(+) (p = 0.04). APC(+) CRCs were more likely to be moderately/well differentiated and microsatellite stable than APC(-) CRCs (p = 0.05 and 0.03). APC(+) CRC cases consumed more alcohol than their counterparts (p = 0.01) and PM(+) CRC cases consumed lower levels of folate and fibre (p = 0.01 and 0.004). APC(+) or PM(+) CRC cases consumed higher levels of processed meat and iron from red meat and red meat products (p = 0.007 and 0.006). Specifically, CRC cases harbouring GC-to-AT transition mutations consumed higher levels of processed meat (35 versus 24 g/day, p = 0.04) and iron from red meat and red meat products (0.8 versus 0.6 mg/day, p = 0.05). In a logistic regression model adjusted for age, sex and cigarette-smoking status, each 19 g/day (1SD) increment increase in processed meat consumption was associated with cases with GC-to-AT mutations (OR 1.68, 95% CI 1.03-2.75). In conclusion, APC(+) and PM(+) CRCs may be influenced by diet and GC-to-AT mutations in APC are associated with processed meat consumption, suggesting a mechanistic link with dietary alkylating agents, such as N-nitroso compounds.

NuMA overexpression in epithelial ovarian cancer.

Highly aneuploid tumours are common in epithelial ovarian cancers (EOC). We investigated whether NuMA expression was associated with this phenomenon.NuMA protein levels in normal and tumour tissues, ovarian cell lines and primary cultures of malignant cells derived from ovarian ascitic fluids were analysed by Affymetrix microarray analysis, immunoblotting, immunohistochemistry (IHC) and immunofluorescence (IF), with results correlated to associated clinical data. Aneuploidy status in primary cultures was determined by FACS analysis.Affymetrix microarray data indicated that NuMA was overexpressed in tumour tissue, primary cultures and cell lines compared to normal ovarian tissue. IHC revealed low to weak NuMA expression in normal tissues. Expression was upregulated in tumours, with a significant association with disease stage in mucinous EOC subtypes (p = 0.009), lymph node involvement (p = 0.03) and patient age (p = 0.04). Additional discontinuous data analysis revealed that high NuMA levels in tumours decreased with grade (p = 0.02) but increased with disease stage (p = 0.04) in serous EOC. NuMA expression decreased in late disease stage 4 endometrioid EOCs. High NuMA levels decreased with increased tumour invasion in all subtypes (p = 0.03). IF of primary cultures revealed that high NuMA levels at mitotic spindle poles were significantly associated with a decreased proportion of cells in cytokinesis (p = 0.05), increased binucleation (p = 0.021) and multinucleation (p = 0.007), and aneuploidy (p = 0.008).NuMA is highly expressed in EOC tumours and high NuMA levels correlate with increases in mitotic defects and aneuploidy in primary cultures.

Estrogen receptor {beta}1 expression is regulated by miR-92 in breast cancer.

Estrogen receptor beta1 (ERbeta1) downregulation occurs in many breast cancers, but the responsible molecular mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we report that levels of ERbeta1 expression are negatively regulated by the microRNA miR-92. Expression analysis in a cohort of primary breast tumors confirmed a significant negative correlation between miR-92 and both ERbeta1 mRNA and protein. Inhibition of miR-92 in MCF-7 cells increased ERbeta1 expression in a dose-dependent manner, whereas miR-92 overexpression led to ERbeta1 downregulation. Reporter constructs containing candidate miR-92 binding sites in the 3'-untranslated region (UTR) of ERbeta1 suggested by bioinformatics analysis confirmed that miR-92 downregulated ERbeta1 via direct targeting of its 3'-UTR. Our results define a potentially important mechanism for downregulation of ERbeta1 expression in breast cancer.

Transcriptional infidelity promotes heritable phenotypic change in a bistable gene network.

Bistable epigenetic switches are fundamental for cell fate determination in unicellular and multicellular organisms. Regulatory proteins associated with bistable switches are often present in low numbers and subject to molecular noise. It is becoming clear that noise in gene expression can influence cell fate. Although the origins and consequences of noise have been studied, the stochastic and transient nature of RNA errors during transcription has not been considered in the origin or modeling of noise nor has the capacity for such transient errors in information transfer to generate heritable phenotypic change been discussed. We used a classic bistable memory module to monitor and capture transient RNA errors: the lac operon of Escherichia coli comprises an autocatalytic positive feedback loop producing a heritable all-or-none epigenetic switch that is sensitive to molecular noise. Using single-cell analysis, we show that the frequency of epigenetic switching from one expression state to the other is increased when the fidelity of RNA transcription is decreased due to error-prone RNA polymerases or to the absence of auxiliary RNA fidelity factors GreA and GreB (functional analogues of eukaryotic TFIIS). Therefore, transcription infidelity contributes to molecular noise and can effect heritable phenotypic change in genetically identical cells in the same environment. Whereas DNA errors allow genetic space to be explored, RNA errors may allow epigenetic or expression space to be sampled. Thus, RNA infidelity should also be considered in the heritable origin of altered or aberrant cell behaviour.

Adduction of human p53 gene by fecal water: an in vitro biomarker of mutagenesis in the human large bowel.

A polymerase arrest assay was designed to determine sites of adduction in the human p53 gene induced by incubation with fecal water. Significant formation of adducts was observed on p53 DNA after a 2-h incubation in fecal water from 10 of 17 samples studied. Large sample-to-sample variation was observed. The major sites of polymerase termination occurred at nucleotides 3' to guanine residues. Adduct sites coincided with colorectal cancer p53 mutation "hotspots," highlighting the potential carcinogenicity of fecal material.

Potassium diazoacetate-induced p53 mutations in vitro in relation to formation of O6-carboxymethyl- and O6-methyl-2'-deoxyguanosine DNA adducts: relevance for gastrointestinal cancer.

Nitrosated glycine derivatives react with DNA to form O6-carboxymethyl-2'-deoxyguanosine (O6-CMdG) and O6-methyl-2'-deoxyguanosine (O6-MedG) adducts concurrently. O6-CMdG is not repaired by O6-alkylguanine alkyltransferases and might be expected to lead to mutations via a similar mechanism to O6-MedG. Potassium diazoacetate (KDA) is a stable form of nitrosated glycine and its ability to induce mutations in the p53 gene in a functional yeast assay was studied. Treatment of a plasmid containing the human p53 cDNA sequence with KDA afforded readily detectable levels of O6-CMdG and O6-MedG. The treated plasmid was used to transform yeast cells and coloured colonies harbouring a p53 sequence with functional mutations were detected. Recovery of the mutated plasmids followed by DNA sequencing enabled the mutation spectrum of KDA to be characterised. The most common mutations induced by KDA were substitutions with >50% occurring at GC base pairs. In contrast to the methylating agent methylnitrosourea which gives predominantly (>80%) GC-->AT transitions, KDA produced almost equal amounts of transitions (GC-->AT) and transversions (GC-->TA and AT-->TA). This difference is probably due to a different mode of base mispairing for O6-CMdG compared with O6-MedG. The pattern of mutations induced by KDA was very similar to the patterns observed in mutated p53 in human gastrointestinal tract tumours. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that nitrosation of glycine (or glycine derivatives) may contribute to characteristic human p53 mutation profiles. This conclusion is borne out by recent observations that O6-CMdG is present in human DNA both from blood and exfoliated colorectal cells and is consistent with recent epidemiological studies that have concluded that endogenous nitrosation arising from red meat consumption is related to an increased risk of colorectal cancer.

Influences of base excision repair defects on the lethality and mutagenicity induced by Me-lex, a sequence-selective N3-adenine methylating agent.

Due to its minor groove selectivity, Me-lex preferentially generates N3-methyladenine (3-MeA) adducts in double-stranded DNA. We undertook a genetic approach in yeast to establish the influence of base excision repair (BER) defects on the processing of Me-lex lesions on plasmid DNA that harbors the p53 cDNA as target. We constructed a panel of isogenic strains containing a reporter gene to test p53 function and the following gene deletions: deltamag1, deltaapn1apn2, and deltaapn1apn2mag1. When compared with the wild-type strain, a decrease in survival was observed in deltamag1, deltaapn1apn2, and deltaapn1apn2mag1. The Me-lex-induced mutation frequency increased in the following order: wild type < deltamag1< deltaapn1apn2 = deltaapn1apn2mag1. A total of 77 mutants (23 in wild type, 31 in deltamag1, and 23 in deltaapn1apn2) were sequenced. Eighty-one independent mutations (24 in wild type, 34 in deltamag1, and 23 in deltaapn1apn2) were detected. The majority of base pair substitutions were AT-targeted in all strains (14/23, 61% in wild type; 20/34, 59%, in deltamag1; and 14/23, 61%, in deltaapn1apn2). The Mag1 deletion was associated with a significant decrease of GC > AT transitions when compared with both the wild-type and the AP endonuclease mutants. This is the first time that the impact of Mag1 and/or AP endonuclease defects on the mutational spectra caused by 3-MeA has been determined. The results suggest that 3-MeA is critical for Me-lex cytotoxicity and that its mutagenicity is slightly elevated in the absence of Mag1 glycosylase activity but significantly higher in the absence of AP endonuclease activity.