Effectiveness of nutrition counseling for pregnant women in low- and middle-income countries to improve maternal and infant behavioral, nutritional, and health outcomes: A systematic review.

Background: Nutritional counseling, which includes two-way interactive education, has been hypothesized to improve the health and nutritional status of pregnant women, but little is known about the impact such practice of care might have on maternal and infant health and behavioral outcomes of pregnant women living in low income, low-middle income, and upper-middle-income countries (LMIC)s. Objectives: We conducted a systematic review to appraise the effectiveness and impact on health equity of two-way nutritional counseling practices in LMICs on maternal and infant behavioral, nutritional, and health outcomes. Search Methods: We conducted electronic searches for relevant studies on Medline, Embase, CINAHL, PsychInfo, and the Cochrane CENTRAL for randomized and non-randomized trials on the effectiveness of two-way interactive nutritional counseling among pregnant women from the date of database inception up to June 22, 2021. In addition, we searched references of included studies in systematic reviews, gray literature resources, and unpublished studies or reports that satisfied our eligibility criteria using a focused Google search. Selection Criteria: We included randomized and non-randomized controlled studies (NRS), controlled before and after, and interrupted time series that assessed the effectiveness of two-way interactive nutrition counseling targeting pregnant women in LMICs. Data Collection and Analysis: Data extraction and risk of bias were conducted in duplicate. The risk of bias (ROB) for randomized trials (RCT) was assessed according to the Cochrane Handbook of Systematic Reviews, and ROB for NRS was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa scale (NOS). RCT and NRS were meta-analyzed separately. Main Results: Our search identified 6418 records and 52 studies met our inclusion criteria, but only 28 were used in the quantitative analysis. Twenty-eight studies were conducted in Asia, the most in Iran. Eight studies were conducted in Africa. Two-way interactive nutritional counseling during pregnancy may improve dietary caloric intake (mean difference [MD]: 81.65 calories, 95% confidence interval [CI], 15.37-147.93, three RCTs; I 2 = 42%; moderate certainty of evidence using GRADE assessment), may reduce hemorrhage (relative risk [RR]: 0.63; 95% CI, 0.25-1.54, two RCTs; I 2 = 40%; very low certainty of evidence using GRADE assessment), may improve protein (MD: 10.44 g, 95% CI, 1.83-19.05, two RCTs; I 2 = 95%; high certainty of evidence using GRADE assessment), fat intake (MD: 3.42 g, 95% CI, -0.20 to 7.04, two RCTs; I 2 = 0%; high certainty of evidence using GRADE assessment), and may improve gestational weight gain within recommendations (RR: 1.84; 95% CI, 1.10-3.09, three RCTs; I 2 = 69%). Nutrition counseling probably leads to the initiation of breastfeeding immediately after birth (RR: 1.72; 95% CI, 1.42-2.09, one RCT). There was little to no effect on reducing anemia (RR: 0.77; 95% CI, 0.50-1.20, three RCTs; I 2 = 67%; very low certainty of evidence using GRADE assessment) risk of stillbirths (RR: 0.81; 95% CI, 0.52-1.27, three RCTs; I 2 = 0%; moderate certainty of evidence using GRADE assessment) and risk of cesarean section delivery (RR: 0.96; 95% CI, 0.76-1.20, four RCTs; I 2 = 36%; moderate certainty of evidence using GRADE assessment). Authors' Conclusions: Our review highlights improvements in maternal behavioral and health outcomes through interactive nutrition counseling during pregnancy. However, we are uncertain about the effects of nutrition counseling due to the low certainty of evidence and a low number of studies for some key outcomes. Moreover, the effects on health equity remain unknown. More methodologically rigorous trials that focus on a precise selection of outcomes driven by the theory of change of nutrition counseling to improve maternal and infant behavioral and health outcomes and consider equity are required.

Multiple micronutrient supplementation cost-benefit tool for informing maternal nutrition policy and investment decisions.

Antenatal multiple micronutrient supplementation (MMS) is an intervention that can help reach three of the six global nutrition targets, either directly or indirectly: a reduction in low birth weight, stunting, and anaemia in women of reproductive age. To support global guideline development and national decision-making on investments into maternal nutrition, Nutrition International developed a modelling tool called the MMS cost-benefit tool to help users understand whether antenatal MMS is better value for money than iron and folic acid supplementation (IFAS) during pregnancy. The MMS cost-benefit tool can generate estimates on the potential health impact, budget impact, economic value, cost-effectiveness and benefit-cost ratio of investing in MMS compared to IFAS in LMICs. In the 33 countries with data included in the tool, the MMS cost-benefit tool shows that transitioning is expected to generate substantial health benefits in terms of morbidity and mortality averted and can be very cost-effective in multiple scenarios for these countries. The cost per DALY averted averages at US$ 23.61 and benefit-cost ratio ranges from US$ 41-US$ 1304: $1.0, which suggest MMS is good value for money compared with IFAS. With its user-friendly design, open access availability, and online data-driven analytics, the MMS cost-benefit tool can be a powerful resource for governments and nutrition partners seeking timely and evidence-based analyses to inform policy-decision and investments towards the scale-up of MMS for pregnant women globally.

Chlorhexidine cord care after a national scale-up as a newborn survival strategy: A survey in four regions of Ethiopia.

INTRODUCTION: Chlorhexidine cord care is an effective intervention to reduce neonatal infection and death in resource constrained settings. The Federal Ministry of Health of Ethiopia adopted chlorhexidine cord care in 2015, with national scale-up in 2017. However, there is lack of evidence on the provision of this important intervention in Ethiopia. In this paper, we report on the coverage and determinants of chlorhexidine cord care for newborns in Ethiopia. METHODS: A standardized Nutrition International Monitoring System (NIMS) survey was conducted from January 01 to Feb 13, 2020 in four regions of Ethiopia (Tigray, Amhara, Oromia, and Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region [SNNPR]) on sample of 1020 women 0-11 months postpartum selected through a multistage cluster sampling approach. Data were collected using interviewer-administered questionnaires in the local languages through home-to-home visit. Accounting for the sampling design of the study, we analyzed the data using complex data analysis approach. Complex sample multivariable logistic regression was used to identify the determinants of chlorhexidine cord care practice. RESULTS: Overall, chlorhexidine was reportedly applied to the umbilical cord at some point postpartum among 46.1% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 41.1%- 51.2%) of all newborns. Chlorhexidine cord care started within 24 hours after birth for 34.4% (95% CI: 29.5%- 39.6%) of newborns, though this varied widely across regions: from Oromia (24.4%) to Tigray (60.0%). Among the newborns who received chlorhexidine cord care, 48.3% received it for the recommended seven days or more. Further, neonates whose birth was assisted by skilled birth attendants had more than ten times higher odds of receiving chlorhexidine cord care, relative to those born without a skilled attendant (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 10.36, 95% CI: 3.73-28.75). Besides, neonates born to mothers with knowledge of the benefit of chlorhexidine cord care had significantly higher odds of receiving chlorhexidine cord care relative to newborns born to mothers who did not have knowledge of the benefit of chlorhexidine cord care (AOR: 39.03, 95% CI: 21.45-71.04). CONCLUSION: A low proportion of newborns receive chlorhexidine cord care in Ethiopia. The practice of chlorhexidine cord care varies widely across regions and is limited mostly to births attended by skilled birth attendants. Efforts must continue to ensure women can reach skilled care at delivery, and to ensure adequate care for newborns who do not yet access skilled delivery.

Family influences on health and nutrition practices of pregnant adolescents in Bangladesh.

Adolescent pregnancy can result in serious risks to the mother and her baby; yet, adolescents are among the least likely to access healthcare. Specific nutrition or antenatal care (ANC) guidelines for supporting pregnant adolescents are not available. To understand experiences and decision-making of pregnant adolescents in Bangladesh related to ANC and nutrition practices, peer interviewers were trained to conduct qualitative interviews in Dhaka and Rangpur with pregnant adolescents (n = 48), adolescent mothers (n = 48), adolescents' family members (n = 64) and health service providers (n = 32). Key themes explored included perception and support of adolescent pregnancy, experiences in seeking ANC, dietary practices, sources of information and roles of male and female family members. Spheres of influence on adolescent pregnancy were identified through analytical framework informed by the socio-ecological model. Respondents felt that adolescent pregnancy is risky and that adolescents require support and guidance through this experience. Families were highly influential on the care seeking, health and nutrition of pregnant adolescents, and mothers/mothers-in-law primarily took on the decision-making roles, with husbands actively participating. Adolescents valued family support but felt a loss of autonomy and agency upon becoming pregnant. Financial constraints were the greatest perceived barrier to appropriate nutrition and healthcare; yet, both were valued. There is sometimes discord of health and nutrition beliefs between families and health service providers; more research is needed to understand this further. It is essential to engage family members and adolescents in initiatives to increase access to quality ANC for pregnant adolescents, improve dietary practices and support the ability to delay pregnancy.

PROTOCOL: Effectiveness of nutrition counselling for pregnant women in low- and middle-income countries to improve maternal, infant and child behavioural, nutritional and health outcomes: A systematic review.

The objective of this systematic review is to identify, appraise and synthesise the best available evidence on the effectiveness of nutritional counselling and education interventions on maternal, infant and child health outcomes, and assess the differences in effects across participants' PROGRESS+ characteristics. To achieve these objectives, we will aim to answer the following research questions: What is the effectiveness of nutrition counselling interventions for pregnant women in low- or middle-income countries on maternal, infant and child health outcomes? What are the impacts of nutrition counselling interventions on maternal, infant and child health outcomes across participants' PROGRESS+ characteristics?

Training healthcare workers increases IFA use and adherence: Evidence and cost-effectiveness analysis from Bangladesh.

Iron and folic acid (IFA) supplementation programmes are important for preventing and controlling anaemia among pregnant women in low- and middle-income countries. However, frontline health care workers often have limited capacity and knowledge, which can compromise such programmes' effectiveness. Between 2012 and 2014, Nutrition International and the Government of Bangladesh implemented a programme intended to increase IFA supplement consumption during pregnancy. The programme provided frontline health care workers with training on the benefits of IFA supplementation, the use of interpersonal communication and health promotion materials during antenatal care visits and health management information systems to track reported adherence to IFA supplementation. Using a quasi-experimental design, this study investigates the programme's effectiveness and cost-effectiveness at increasing IFA supplement consumption and adherence among pregnant women. The difference-in-differences regression analysis comparing outcomes in an intervention and comparison group concluded that the programme increased IFA consumption by an average of 45.05 supplements (P value = 0.018) and increased the share of women that reported adherence to a regime of at least 90 supplements by 40.35 percentage points (P value = 0.020). Knowledge of IFA supplement dosage and benefits also increased among frontline health care workers and pregnant women. The programme cost $47.11 USD (2018) per disability-adjusted life year averted, which is considered highly cost-effective when evaluated against several cost-effectiveness thresholds. This study suggests that the capacity building of frontline health care workers is an effective and cost-effective method of preventing and controlling anaemia among pregnant women in resource-constrained areas.

Multiple Micronutrient Supplements Are More Cost-effective Than Iron and Folic Acid: Modeling Results from 3 High-Burden Asian Countries.

BACKGROUND: Recent evidence has encouraged low- and middle-income countries to consider transitioning from long-standing iron and folic acid supplementation (IFA) to multiple micronutrient supplementation (MMS) during pregnancy; however, global guidance is limited. To facilitate national decision-making, a cost-effectiveness model to compare supplementation approaches was developed, and applied to Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh. OBJECTIVE: We evaluated the incremental cost-effectiveness of transitioning from IFA to MMS. METHODS: The effectiveness of IFA compared with MMS during pregnancy was compared using 8 health outcomes reported in 2 meta-analyses published in 2017 (Cochrane and The Lancet). Impacts on health outcomes were aggregated using disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). Costs included the supplements and their distribution through antenatal care. The incremental cost-effective ratio (ICER) for transitioning from IFA to MMS was calculated for each country under each meta-analysis scenario, and Monte Carlo simulations were applied to generate a measure of certainty around the results. RESULTS: The effectiveness of transitioning from IFA to MMS under the Cochrane scenario was smaller and less certain compared with The Lancet scenario. However, even under the Cochrane scenario, MMS would avert 4,391, 5,769, and 8,578 more DALYs than IFA per 100,000 pregnancies in Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh, respectively (62.6%, 76.8%, and 82.6% certainty). The ICER of transitioning from IFA to MMS was 41.54, 31.62, and 21.26 US dollars (USD 2016) per DALY averted, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Despite discrepancies in the overall effect of MMS depending on the meta-analysis used, MMS is cost-effective and generates positive health outcomes for both infants and pregnant women. Whilst the effectiveness of MMS is sensitive to the prevalence of certain health outcomes under the conservative scenario (Cochrane), MMS nevertheless averts more DALYs than IFA with high certainty and should re-enter public health discussion in Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh.

Effectiveness of programme approaches to improve the coverage of maternal nutrition interventions in South Asia.

The nutritional status of women before pregnancy, during pregnancy, and after delivery has far reaching consequences for maternal health and child survival, growth, and development. In South Asia, the high prevalence of short stature, thinness, and anaemia among women of reproductive age underlie the high prevalence of child undernutrition in the region, whereas overweight and obesity are rising concerns. A systematic review of evidence (2000-2017) was conducted to identify barriers and programme approaches to improving the coverage of maternal nutrition interventions in the region. The search strategy used 13 electronic bibliographic databases and 14 websites of development and technical agencies and identified 2,247 citations. Nine studies conducted in Bangladesh (n = 2), India (n = 5), Nepal (n = 1), and Pakistan (n = 1) were selected for the review, and outcomes included the receipt and consumption of iron and folic acid and calcium supplements and the receipt of information on dietary intake during pregnancy. The studies indicate that a range of barriers acting at the individual (maternal), household, and health service delivery levels affects intervention coverage during pregnancy. Programme approaches that were effective in improving intervention coverage addressed barriers at multiple levels and had several common features: use of formative research and client assessments to inform the design of programme approaches and actions; community-based delivery platforms to increase access to services; engagement of family members, as well as pregnant women, in influencing behavioural change; actions to improve the capacity, supervision, monitoring, and motivation of front-line service providers to provide information and counselling; and access to free supplements.

Weekly iron-folic acid supplements to prevent anemia among Cambodian women in three settings: process and outcomes of social marketing and community mobilization.

Social marketing and community mobilization approaches were applied in a pilot program to introduce weekly iron-folic acid supplementation to prevent anemia in Cambodian women of reproductive age. The program was implemented in three very different environments: secondary school girls, women working in garment factories in the vicinity of Phnom Penh, and women in rural villages. Each population provided its own challenges and obstacles. However, all three groups of women showed substantial improvements in knowledge about the causes, consequences, and prevention of anemia, and the large majority reported interest in continuing to take the supplements.

Positive impact of a weekly iron-folic acid supplement delivered with social marketing to Cambodian women: compliance, participation, and hemoglobin levels increase with higher socioeconomic status.

A social marketing program promoting weekly iron-folic acid supplementation improved hemoglobin levels in women of reproductive age in Cambodia. Supplementation was increasingly effective among women of higher socioeconomic status (SES). Among higher SES schoolgirls, 58% took the supplements, compared with 49% for lower SES (P = 0.07). Garment factory workers with an 11th- or 12th-grade education had a mean improvement in hemoglobin of 0.72 g/dL over those with a 5th-grade education or less (P = 0.04). The percentage of rural village women taking supplements increased with increasing SES (linear trend P = 0.046). These results suggest that women with lower SES be given special attention for future programs.