Melanism evolution in the cat family is influenced by intraspecific communication under low visibility.

Melanism in the cat family has been associated with functions including camouflage, thermoregulation and parasite resistance. Here we investigate a new hypothesis proposing that the evolution of melanism in cats has additionally been influenced by communication functions of body markings. To evaluate this hypothesis, we assembled a species-level data set of morphological (body marks: white marks on the backs of ears) and ecological (circadian activity: arrhythmic/nocturnal, and environmental preference: open/closed) characteristics that could be associated with communication via body markings, and combined these data with a dated molecular phylogeny. Next, we tested the association between melanism and communication, first by relating species' body marks with their ecological conditions, using a Bayesian implementation of the threshold model. Second, to explore the evolution of characteristics potentially influencing melanism in cat species, we modeled their evolution relative to melanism using models of coordinated vs. independent character changes. Our results suggest that white marks are associated with intraspecific communication between individuals that have non-melanistic phenotypes, as well as towards melanistic individuals (without white marks). The absence of white marks in a melanistic individual tends to be a limiting condition for intraspecific visual communication at night, resulting in an evolutionary dilemma for these species, i.e. to be almost invisible at night, but not to communicate visually. The comparative analysis of several evolutionary models indicated more support for the evolution of melanism being coordinated with the evolution of arrhythmic activity and white marks on the backs of ears.

Which Factors Determine Spatial Segregation in the South American Opossums (Didelphis aurita and D. albiventris)? An Ecological Niche Modelling and Geometric Morphometrics Approach.

Didelphis albiventris and D. aurita are Neotropical marsupials that share a unique evolutionary history and both are largely distributed throughout South America, being primarily allopatric throughout their ranges. In the Araucaria moist forest of Southern Brazil these species are sympatric and they might potentially compete having similar ecology. For this reason, they are ideal biological models to address questions about ecological character displacement and how closely related species might share their geographic space. Little is known about how two morphologically similar species of marsupials may affect each other through competition, if by competitive exclusion and competitive release. We combined ecological niche modeling and geometric morphometrics to explore the possible effects of competition on their distributional ranges and skull morphology. Ecological niche modeling was used to predict their potential distribution and this method enabled us to identify a case of biotic exclusion where the habit generalist D. albiventris is excluded by the presence of the specialist D. aurita. The morphometric analyses show that a degree of shape discrimination occurs between the species, strengthened by allometric differences, which possibly allowed them to occupy marginally different feeding niches supplemented by behavioral shift in contact areas. Overlap in skull morphology is shown between sympatric and allopatric specimens and a significant, but weak, shift in shape occurs only in D. aurita in sympatric areas. This could be a residual evidence of a higher past competition between both species, when contact zones were possibly larger than today. Therefore, the specialist D. aurita acts a biotic barrier to D. albiventris when niche diversity is not available for coexistence. On the other hand, when there is niche diversification (e.g. habitat mosaic), both species are capable to coexist with a minimal competitive effect on the morphology of D. aurita.

Chewing on the trees: Constraints and adaptation in the evolution of the primate mandible.

Chewing on different food types is a demanding biological function. The classic assumption in studying the shape of feeding apparatuses is that animals are what they eat, meaning that adaptation to different food items accounts for most of their interspecific variation. Yet, a growing body of evidence points against this concept. We use the primate mandible as a model structure to investigate the complex interplay among shape, size, diet, and phylogeny. We find a weak but significant impact of diet on mandible shape variation in primates as a whole but not in anthropoids and catarrhines as tested in isolation. These clades mainly exhibit allometric shape changes, which are unrelated to diet. Diet is an important factor in the diversification of strepsirrhines and platyrrhines and a phylogenetic signal is detected in all primate clades. Peaks in morphological disparity occur during the Oligocene (between 37 and 25 Ma) supporting the notion that an adaptive radiation characterized the evolution of South American monkeys. In all primate clades, the evolution of mandible size is faster than its shape pointing to a strong effect of allometry on ecomorphological diversification in this group.

First record of the invasive alien species Axis axis (Erxleben, 1777) (Artiodactyla: Cervidae) in Brazil / Primeiro registro da espécie exótica invasora Axis axis (Erxleben, 1777) (Artiodactyla: Cervidae) no Brasil

The exotic alien species Axis axis was introduced in the Americas at the beginning of last century and since then has established itself, expanding its distribution. This is the first record of this species in Brazil. In the extreme south of the country, an individual of A. axis was recorded with a camera trap in the Espinilho State Park. The area is close to the border of Uruguay and Argentina, countries where the species is established and from where this individual presumably originated. The Pampas biome is strongly disturbed by human activity in Brazil and since many native mammal species such as the Pampas deer Ozotoceros bezoarticus are threatened regionally. It is alarming that exotic populations can potentially rapidly expand their ranges in the region, as A. axis deer has done in Uruguay and Argentina. Possible consequences for this invasion are discussed.

A espécie exótica invasora Axis axis foi introduzida no continente americano no início do século passado e desde então se estabeleceu, ampliando sua distribuição. Este é o primeiro registro da espécie para o Brasil. No extremo sul do país, um indivíduo de A. axis foi registrado com armadilha fotográfica, no Parque Estadual do Espinilho. A área é muito próxima a divisa com Uruguai e Argentina, países onde a espécie esta estabelecida e de onde provavelmente o espécime é originário. Visto que o bioma Pampa encontra-se fortemente alterado no Brasil e que muitas espécies da fauna de mamíferos nativa estão ameaçadas de extinção regionalmente, como o veado-campeiro Ozotoceros bezoarticus, é preocupante que populações exóticas estejam ampliando rapidamente sua área de distribuição na região, como fez A. axis no Uruguai e Argentina. Possíveis implicações decorrentes dessa invasão são discutidas.

[Necessities of professionals of the family health teams from the "4a Coordenadoria Regional de Saúde do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul" for training and improvement]. / Necessidades de capacitação e aperfeiçoamento dos profissionais de equipes de saúde da família da 4a Coordenadoria Regional de Saúde do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul.

This study had the aim to verify the necessities of training and improvement of the 4th Regional Coordination in Health of Rio Grande do Sul State family health teams. The data collection was carried out through the application of questionnaires with objective questions, composed by two parts: field and competence nucleus. For data analyses, Normality, Chi-Square and G tests were used as statistical procedures for Easy and Difficult attributions indicated by the professionals. Professionals have shown less difficulty with generic attributions, related with basic methods and techniques of each health area. However, they have revealed a lot of difficulties with attributions relating to the search of new partners in health inside communities, stimulation of the people participation in the discussion of health rights, and completion of the SIA/SIAB forms, and others. Even after 12 years of the foundation of the Family Health Program (PSF), several difficulties are still observed concerning the way to work with this new health strategy in Brazil. Proposals are made for the complete understanding and improvement of the PSF strategy.

Necessidades de capacitação e aperfeiçoamento dos profissionais de equipes de saúde da família da 4ª Coordenadoria Regional de Saúde do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul / Necessities of professionals of the family health teams from the "4ª Coordenadoria Regional de Saúde do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul" for training and improvement

Este estudo objetivou verificar as necessidades para a capacitação e aperfeiçoamento dos profissionais das equipes de saúde da família dos 31 municípios que compõe a 4ª Coordenadoria Regional de Saúde do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul. A coleta de dados foi realizada através da aplicação de um questionário com questões objetivas, composto de duas partes: campo e núcleo de competências. Para análise dos dados obtidos, foram utilizados testes de normalidade, qui-quadrado e teste G para as atribuições fáceis e difíceis indicadas pelos profissionais. Os profissionais mostraram menores dificuldades com atribuições genéricas, relacionadas a métodos e técnicas básicas de cada área de formação. Porém, revelaram dificuldades tais como a busca de parcerias nas comunidades, estimulação da participação popular na discussão sobre direitos à saúde e o preenchimento dos formulários do SIA/SIAB. Mesmo após doze anos da criação do Programa de Saúde da Família (PSF), observam-se ainda várias dificuldades em atuar de forma adequada e necessária a este novo modelo de trabalho em saúde. São propostas medidas que visam auxiliar e consolidar o PSF em seus diversos níveis.

This study had the aim to verify the necessities of training and improvement of the 4th Regional Coordination in Health of Rio Grande do Sul State family health teams. The data collection was carried out through the application of questionnaires with objective questions, composed by two parts: field and competence nucleus. For data analyses, Normality, Chi-Square and G tests were used as statistical procedures for Easy and Difficult attributions indicated by the professionals. Professionals have shown less difficulty with generic attributions, related with basic methods and techniques of each health area. However, they have revealed a lot of difficulties with attributions relating to the search of new partners in health inside communities, stimulation of the people participation in the discussion of health rights, and completion of the SIA/SIAB forms, and others. Even after 12 years of the foundation of the Family Health Program (PSF), several difficulties are still observed concerning the way to work with this new health strategy in Brazil. Proposals are made for the complete understanding and improvement of the PSF strategy.

Germination in seed species ingested by opossums: implications for seed dispersal and forest conservation

Seed germination in plant species consumed by opossums, genus Didelphis, was investigated in southern Brazil, in order to improve knowledge of the strategies of zoochorous plants in the Neotropics. Seeds were obtained from opossum feces. Thirteen of the most frequent species in the diet of local opossums were tested for germination rates and germination responses under different qualities (red/far red ratio) and different intensities of light. Most seeds from feces germinated similarly to the control groups, except for seeds of Rubus rosifolius, which appeared to depend on gut passage. Other experiments revealed that most seeds in the opossums' diet were of pioneer species, with most germination occurring during favorable humid conditions in the rainy season. A few species showed negative photoblastism, or no dormancy pattern. Small mammals are suggested as possible tools for area recuperation programs, through seed dispersal of many pioneer and some shade-tolerant plants, under suitable management.

Com o objetivo de fornecer conhecimento adicional acerca das estratégias de germinação adotadas por espécies de plantas zoocóricas da Região Neotropical, foram examinadas a dormência e germinação de sementes consumidas por marsupiais do gênero Didelphis. As sementes foram obtidas de fezes dos animais capturados em armadilhas, sendo então analisadas. As espécies mais freqüentes na dieta dos gambás (N = 13) foram testadas quanto a sua viabilidade e possíveis mecanismos de quebra de dormência pela luz (condições de luz vs. sombra vs. escuro; e sob red/far red ratio). A maioria das espécies provenientes das fezes germinou similarmente ao grupo controle, exceto por Rubus rosifolius que parece depender da passagem pelo trato digestivo para a germinação. Outros experimentos mostraram que as espécies de plantas eram principalmente pioneiras, com quebra de dormência principalmente durante a estação mais úmida e favorável ao desenvolvimento. Uma menor proporção de espécies apresentou fotoblastismo negativo ou nenhum padrão de dormência. Os resultados mostram que estes pequenos mamíferos podem ser utilizados em programas de recuperação de áreas degradadas, com enfoque na dispersão de sementes de plantas pioneiras

Ampliação da distribuição de quatro espécies de morcegos (Mammalia, Chiroptera) no Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil / Extension of the distribution of four bat species (Mammalia, Chiroptera) in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Este estudo tem por objetivo registrar a ocorrência de quatro espécies de morcegos na região central do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, sul do Brasil: Histiotus montanus, Pygoderma bilabiatum, Nyctinomops laticaudatus e Myotis ruber. Os dados foram obtidos a partir da coleção científica da Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM) e representam ampliações de distribuição para essas espécies no Estado. São fornecidas informações sobre o habitat onde as espécies foram coletadas, sendo que alguns desses são novos para essas espécies. Pode-se considerar que algumas das espécies enfocadas são raras no Rio Grande do Sul, ao passo que outras deveriam ter o seu grau de ameaça reconsiderado.

The objective of this paper is to record the occurrence of four bats species in the central of the Rio Grande do Sul State, south of Brazil: Histiotus montanus, Pygoderma bilabiatum, Nyctinomops laticaudatus and Myotis ruber. Data were obtained from the scientific collection of Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM) and represent distribution extensions for these bat species in this State. We present information on the habitat where the species were collected, showing that some of them are new for this species. Some of the studied species may be considered rare in the Rio Grande do Sul State, whereas others should have their degree of threat revaluated.

The action of post-dispersal beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) and ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) on scats of Didelphis spp. (Mammalia: Didelphidae)

A two year study of dung beetles and ants acting on scats of two species of opossum (Didelphis spp.) was carried out. Scats were left in the field in order to detect post-dispersal agents. A portion of each scat (30 %) was examined for seeds in the laboratory. Beetles were recovered from burrows (51% of 84 faecal samples left in the field) where they either buried scats of opossums or were attracted, together with ants, to pitfalls (N = 10) baited with opossum scats. Dung beetles were the main post-dispersal agents of seeds found in scats of opossums, rolling the scats away or burying then on the site of deposition. They buried faeces at 4 to 15 cm in depth (N = 22 tunnels). The main dung beetles identified (medium to large size) were Eurysternus (28.7 % in pitfalls) and Dichotomius (13.7 %), Coprophanaeus (seen only directly on faeces), besides small-bodied beetles (< 10 mm; 57.6 %). The ant Acromirmex sp. transported some seeds from scats. This species was present in 25.5 % of all Formicidae samples (pitfall). These post-dispersal agents contribute to avert scat seed predators such as rodents, and to accelerate seed bank formation.

Por dos años estudiamos los escarabajos coprófagos y las hormigas que actúan en las heces de zarigüellas (Didelphis). Se dejaron excrementos en el campo para descubrir los agentes secundarios de dispersión. Una parte de cada excremento (30 %) fue analizada en laboratorio para estimar el número de semillas. Se recolectaron escarabajos del suelo (51 % de 84 excrementos dejados en el campo). También capturamos escarabajos y hormigas con trampas (N= 10). Los escarabajos coprófagos son los principales agentes secundarios de dispersión. Ruedan los excrementos o los entierran a 4-15 cm de profundidad (N= 22 túneles). Los escarabajos coprófagos de mayor tamaño fueron Eurysternus cyanescens (28.7 % en trampas), Dichotomius assifer (13.7 %) y Coprophanaeus saphirinus (sólo visto en madrigueras y directamente sobre los excrementos). Los escarabajos de menos de 10 mm fueron el 57.6 %. La hormiga Acromirmex sp. fue 25.5 % del total de hormigas capturadas en trampas. Hallamos varias especies de semillas en los excrementos, muchos de ellos enterrados por los escarabajos, y algunas fueron extraídas por las hormigas. Estos agentes secundarios ayudan a evitar los depredadores de semillas (eg. roedores) y aceleran la formación del banco de semillas, pues no las comen.

The action of post-dispersal beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) and ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) on scats of Didelphis spp. (Mammalia: Didelphidae).

A two year study of dung beetles and ants acting on scats of two species of opossum (Didelphis spp.) was carried out. Scats were left in the field in order to detect post-dispersal agents. A portion of each scat (30 %) was examined for seeds in the laboratory. Beetles were recovered from burrows (51% of 84 faecal samples left in the field) where they either buried scats of opossums or were attracted, together with ants, to pitfalls (N = 10) baited with opossum scats. Dung beetles were the main post-dispersal agents of seeds found in scats of opossums, rolling the scats away or burying then on the site of deposition. They buried faeces at 4 to 15 cm in depth (N = 22 tunnels). The main dung beetles identified (medium to large size) were Eurysternus (28.7 % in pitfalls) and Dichotomius (13.7 %), Coprophanaeus (seen only directly on faeces), besides small-bodied beetles (< 10 mm; 57.6 %). The ant Acromirmex sp. transported some seeds from scats. This species was present in 25.5 % of all Formicidae samples (pitfall). These post-dispersal agents contribute to avert scat seed predators such as rodents, and to accelerate seed bank formation.

Novos registros de moscas ectoparasitas (Diptera, Streblidae e Nycteribiidae) de morcegos (Mammalia, Chiroptera) em áreas de transição cerrado-floresta estacional no Mato Grosso do Sul, Brasil / New records of bat flies (Diptera, Streblidae and Nycteribiidae) on bats in cerrado of State of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil

As primeiras informações sobre moscas ectoparasitas de morcegos e seus hospedeiros no estado do Mato Grosso do Sul são apresentadas. Os indivíduos de morcegos e de dípteros ectoparasitos foram coletados em área transicionais de cerrado e floresta estacional semidecídua, e também em uma floresta decídua. Foram encontradas sete espécies de Streblidae e uma de Basilia Miranda-Ribeiro, 1903 (Nycteribiidae). Todos os registros são inéditos para o estado do Mato Grosso do Sul e Basilia bequaerti Guimarães & DïAndretta, 1956 é registrada pela primeira vez no Brasil.

The first information on species of bat flies and their hosts in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul is given. The specimens of bats and bat flies were collected in a transitional area of cerrado and semideciduous forest and in a deciduous forest. Seven species of streblid and one of nicteribiid flies were collected on five species of bats. All bat flies are recorded for the first time in Mato Grosso do Sul and Basilia bequaerti Guimarães & DïAndretta, 1956 is a new record for Brazil.