Structural and functional studies of histidine biosynthesis in Acanthamoeba spp. demonstrates a novel molecular arrangement and target for antimicrobials.

Acanthamoeba is normally free-living, but sometimes facultative and occasionally opportunistic parasites. Current therapies are, by necessity, arduous and yet poorly effective due to their inabilities to kill cyst stages or in some cases to actually induce encystation. Acanthamoeba can therefore survive as cysts and cause disease recurrence. Herein, in pursuit of better therapies and to understand the biochemistry of this understudied organism, we characterize its histidine biosynthesis pathway and explore the potential of targeting this with antimicrobials. We demonstrate that Acanthamoeba is a histidine autotroph, but with the ability to scavenge preformed histidine. It is able to grow in defined media lacking this amino acid, but is inhibited by 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole (3AT) that targets Imidazoleglycerol-Phosphate Dehydratase (IGPD) the rate limiting step of histidine biosynthesis. The structure of Acanthamoeba IGPD has also been determined in complex with 2-hydroxy-3-(1,2,4-triazol-1-yl) propylphosphonate [(R)-C348], a recently described novel inhibitor of Arabidopsis thaliana IGPD. This compound inhibited the growth of four Acanthamoeba species, having a 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) ranging from 250-526 nM. This effect could be ablated by the addition of 1 mM exogenous free histidine, but importantly not by physiological concentrations found in mammalian tissues. The ability of 3AT and (R)-C348 to restrict the growth of four strains of Acanthamoeba spp. including a recently isolated clinical strain, while not inducing encystment, demonstrates the potential therapeutic utility of targeting the histidine biosynthesis pathway in Acanthamoeba.

The Acanthamoeba shikimate pathway has a unique molecular arrangement and is essential for aromatic amino acid biosynthesis.

The shikimate pathway is the only known biosynthetic route for de novo synthesis of aromatic compounds. It is described as an ancient eukaryotic innovation that has been retained in a subset of eukaryotes, replaced in plants through the acquisition of the chloroplast, but lost in many including humans. Herein, we demonstrate that Acanthamoeba castellanii possesses the shikimate pathway by biochemical and a combination of bioinformatics and molecular biological methods. The growth of A. castellanii (Neff strain and a recently isolated clinical specimen, both T4 genotypes) is inhibited by glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine], an inhibitor of EPSP synthase and the addition of phenylalanine and tryptophan, which are dependent on the shikimate pathway, rescued A. castellanii from glyphosate indicating that glyphosate was specific in action. A. castellanii has a novel complement of shikimate pathway enzymes including unique gene fusions, two Type I and one Type II DAHP synthases (for which their likely sensitivities to feedback inhibition by phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan has been modelled) and a canonical chorismate synthase. The shikimate pathway in A. castellanii therefore has a novel molecular arrangement, is required for amino acid biosynthesis and represents an attractive target for antimicrobials.

Acanthamoeba alternative oxidase genes: identification, characterisation and potential as antimicrobial targets.

Alternative oxidase (AOX) is a mitochondrial protein that acts as an alternative terminal oxidase to the conventional cytochrome oxidases. It is present in certain prokaryotes, plants, fungi and some protozoa but absent in mammals. AOX activity has previously been described in Acanthamoeba, although no genetic evidence has been reported. Herein, two AOX (AcAOX) genes designated isoforms A and B, were obtained from Acanthamoeba castellanii by a combination of degenerate PCR from cDNA and a series of 5' and 3' rapid amplification of cDNA ends. The corresponding genomic sequences of these AcAOXs were also obtained. Each gene spans six exons over a region of 1607 and 1619bp, respectively. Isoforms A and B have open reading frames of 1113 and 1125bp, respectively. Each encodes a protein with a predicted molecular weight of 42kDa. Each AcAOX protein has a predicted cleavable mitochondrial targeting sequence. The full-length AcAOX is functionally active as it complements hemL-deficient Escherichia coli and inhibited by the inhibitor of AOX, salicylhydroxamic acid (SHAM). SHAM is effective against A. castellanii and Acanthamoeba polyphaga only when used in conjunction with antimycin A, an inhibitor of the conventional cytochrome respiratory pathway. Transcripts for AcAOX are increased during the encystment process, indicating a possible role for alternative respiration during stress.