A prospective study among neonates born to mothers with active or past Graves disease.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this prospective study was to describe demographic and clinical characteristics of neonates born to mothers with active or past Graves disease and to assess compliance since implementation of a new protocol in our center. METHODS: We prospectively followed up neonates born to mothers with active or past Graves disease in a tertiary hospital in Spain between August 2019 and September 2021 according to our protocol. We reviewed maternal and neonatal history of these neonates, and we followed up newborns at risk of neonatal hyperthyroidism. RESULTS: Among 5808 births, 33 neonates were born to mothers with active or past Graves disease (0.57%). Six mothers (18.2%) had positive levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor antibodies during pregnancy and five mothers (15.1%) between weeks 20 and 24 of pregnancy. Two of them had received definitive therapy for Graves disease before pregnancy. Two neonates (7.1%) were at high risk of neonatal hyperthyroidism and were followed-up until two months, without hyperthyroidism signs or abnormal thyroid hormone levels. Compliance of protocol during pregnancy was 84.9% and 75.8% at birth. CONCLUSIONS: Prevalence of Graves disease among pregnant women was 0.57%, with no cases of neonatal hyperthyroidism. Compliance of protocol was adequate during pregnancy (84.9%) and acceptable at birth (75.8%).

Role of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals in the Pathogenesis of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: A Comprehensive Review.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is considered the most common liver disorder, affecting around 25% of the population worldwide. It is a complex disease spectrum, closely linked with other conditions such as obesity, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and metabolic syndrome, which may increase liver-related mortality. In light of this, numerous efforts have been carried out in recent years in order to clarify its pathogenesis and create new prevention strategies. Currently, the essential role of environmental pollutants in NAFLD development is recognized. Particularly, endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) have a notable influence. EDCs can be classified as natural (phytoestrogens, genistein, and coumestrol) or synthetic, and the latter ones can be further subdivided into industrial (dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls, and alkylphenols), agricultural (pesticides, insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides), residential (phthalates, polybrominated biphenyls, and bisphenol A), and pharmaceutical (parabens). Several experimental models have proposed a mechanism involving this group of substances with the disruption of hepatic metabolism, which promotes NAFLD. These include an imbalance between lipid influx/efflux in the liver, mitochondrial dysfunction, liver inflammation, and epigenetic reprogramming. It can be concluded that exposure to EDCs might play a crucial role in NAFLD initiation and evolution. However, further investigations supporting these effects in humans are required.

Calcium is reduced in presynaptic mitochondria of motor nerve terminals during neurotransmission in SMA mice.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive degenerative motor neuron disease characterized by symmetrical muscle weakness and atrophy of limb and trunk muscles being the most severe genetic disease in children. In SMA mouse models, motor nerve terminals display neurotransmitter release reduction, endocytosis decrease and mitochondria alterations. The relationship between these changes is, however, not well understood. In the present study, we investigated whether the endocytosis impairment could be related to the functional alteration of the presynaptic mitochondria during action potential (AP) firing. To this aim, we generated a Synaptophysin-pHluorin (SypHy) transgenic mouse, crossed it with Taiwanese SMA mice, and recorded exo- and endocytosis and mitochondria Ca2+ signaling in real-time at ex vivo motor nerve terminals of Taiwanese-SypHy mice. The experiments were performed at the beginning of the motor symptoms to get an integrated view of the nerve terminal's functional state before degeneration. Our electrophysiological and live imaging results demonstrated that the mitochondria's capacity to increase matrix-free Ca2+ in SMA mice was significantly limited during nerve AP firing, except when the rate of Ca2+ entry to the cytosol was considerably reduced. These results indicate that both the mitochondrial Ca2+ signaling alterations and the secretion machinery defects are significant players in the dysfunction of the presynaptic terminal in SMA.

Síndrome de Usher y esquizofrenia. A propósito de un caso / Usher syndrome and schizophrenia. A case report

El síndrome de Usher (SU) es una enfermedad caracterizada por una alteración importante de la audición y de la visión. Se trata de la causa hereditaria más frecuente de presentación de sordera junto con ceguera, pudiendo afectar también al equilibrio. Se ha observado la asociación con diversas enfermedades mentales, destacando entre ellas la esquizofrenia. Presentamos el caso clínico de un paciente de 50 años de edad con SU tipo II, sin antecedentes personales de enfermedad psiquiátrica, que presenta desorganización conductual, alteraciones sensoperceptivas y del contenido y forma del pensamiento. La aparición de psicosis está descrita con frecuencia en estos pacientes, siendo su identificación precoz, esencial para un abordaje integral

Usher syndrome is an illness mainly characterized by a significant impairment of hearing and vision. It is the most common inherited cause of deafness along with blindness, and it may also affect balance. An association with various mental disorders has been observed, particularly with schizophrenia. We are reporting the case of a 50-year-old patient with Usher syndrome type II, without previous history of psychiatric disorder, who presents with behavioural disorganization, sensory-perceptual disturbances and alterations in form and content of thought. Psychosis is often described in patients Usher syndrome, and its early detection is essential to a comprehensive approach

Multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging-guided salvage radiotherapy in prostate cancer.

AIM: To analyse the efficacy and toxicity of postprostatectomy SRT in patients with a BCR evaluated with mpMRI. BACKGROUND: Multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging (mpMRI) has the ability to detect the site of pelvic recurrence in patients with biochemical recurrence (BCR) after radical prostatectomy (RP). However, we do not know the oncological outcomes of mpMRI-guided savage radiotherapy (SRT). RESULTS: Local, lymph node, and pelvic bone recurrence was observed in 13, 4 and 2 patients, respectively. PSA levels were significantly lower in patients with negative mpMRI (0.4 ng/mL [0.4]) vs. positive mpMRI (2.2 ng/mL [4.1], p = 0.003). Median planning target volume doses in patients with visible vs. non-visible recurrences were 76 Gy vs. 70 Gy. Overall, mean follow-up was 41 months (6-81). Biochemical relapse-free survival (bRFS) at 3 years was 82.3% and 82.5%, respectively, for the negative and positive mpMRI groups (p = 0.800). Three-year rates of late grade ≥2 urinary and rectal toxicity were 14.8% and 1.9%, respectively; all but one patient recovered without sequelae. CONCLUSION: SRT to the macroscopic recurrence identified by mpMRI is a feasible and well-tolerated option. In this study, there were no differences in bRFS between MRI-positive and MRI-negative patients, indicating effective targeting of MRI-positive lesions.

The Influence of Weather on the Incidence of Primary Spontaneous Intracerebral Hemorrhage.

BACKGROUND: Intracerebral hemorrhage has been associated with changes in various weather conditions. The primary aim of this study was to examine the collective influence of temperature, barometric pressure, and dew point temperature on the incidence of primary spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage (sICH). METHODS: Between January 2013 and December 2016, patients with sICH due to hypertension or amyloid angiopathy with a known time of onset were identified prospectively. Meteorological variables 6 hours prior to time of onset were obtained from the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration via two weather stations. Using a Monte-Carlo simulation, random populations of meteorological conditions in a 6-hour time window during the same years were generated. The actual meteorological conditions 6-hours prior to sICH were compared to those from the randomly generated populations. The false discovery rate method was used to identify significant meteorological variables. RESULTS: Time of onset was identified in 455 of 603 (75.5%) patients. Distribution curves for change in temperature, mean barometric pressure, and change in barometric pressure 6-hours prior to hemorrhage ictus were found to be significantly different from the random populations. (FDR approach P < .05). For a given change in temperature associated with intracerebral hemorrhage, mean barometric pressure was higher (1018 millibar (mb) versus 1016 mb, P = .03). Barometric pressure data was not influenced by variations in temperature. CONCLUSIONS: We concluded that barometric pressure primarily influences the incidence of intracerebral hemorrhage. The association described in the literature between temperature and intracerebral hemorrhage is likely confounded by variations in barometric pressure.

Carbonic anhydrase inhibitor acetazolamide shifts synaptic vesicle recycling to a fast mode at the mouse neuromuscular junction.

Acetazolamide (AZ), a molecule frequently used to treat different neurological syndromes, is an inhibitor of the carbonic anhydrase (CA), an enzyme that regulates pH inside and outside cells. We combined fluorescent FM styryl dyes and electrophysiological techniques at ex vivo levator auris longus neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) from mice to investigate the modulation of synaptic transmission and vesicle recycling by AZ. Transmitter release was minimally affected by AZ, as evidenced by evoked and spontaneous end-plate potential measurements. However, optical evaluation with FM-styryl dyes of vesicle exocytosis elicited by 50 Hz stimuli showed a strong reduction in fluorescence loss in AZ treated NMJ, an effect that was abolished by bathing the NMJ in Hepes. The remaining dye was quenched by bromophenol, a small molecule capable of diffusing inside vesicles. Furthermore, in transgenic mice expressing Synaptophysin-pHluorin (SypHy), the fluorescence responses of motor nerve terminals to a 50 Hz train of stimuli was decrease to a 50% of controls in the presence of AZ. Immunohistochemistry experiments to evaluate the state of the Myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), an enzyme involved in vesicle recycling, demonstrated that MLCK phosphorylation was much stronger in the presence than AZ than in its absence in 50 Hz stimulated NMJs. We postulate that AZ, via cytosol acidification and activation of MLCK, shifts synaptic vesicle recycling to a fast (kiss-and-run) mode, which changes synaptic performance. These changes may contribute to the therapeutic action reported in many neurological syndromes like ataxia, epilepsy, and migraine.

DE LA OBESIDAD A LA DIABETES: LA INSULINO- RESISTENCIA ES UN MECANISMO DE DEFENSA TISULAR Y NO UNA ENFERMEDAD / FROMOBESITYTODIABETES:INSULIN-RESISTANCE IS A DEFENSE MECHANISM AND NOT A DISEASE ABSTRACT

La capacidad de almacenamiento del tejido adiposo es limitada y determinada genéticamente, así, hay individuos delgados con poca capacidad de almacenamiento que tienen marcadores metabólicos alterados (hiperinsulinismo, hiperglucemia, dislipidemia, esteatosis hepática, etc.), y otros sujetos con gran capacidad de almacenamiento que incrementan su peso hasta llegar a obesidad mórbida y sin embargo tienen marcadores metabólicos normales. A medida que el tejido adiposo se va acercando a su máxima capacidad de almacenamiento, el adipocito se va haciendo menos sensible a la insulina, para evitar su muerte por apoptosis debido al acúmulo excesivo de triglicéridos (TG). El grado de insulino-resistencia (IR) del tejido adiposo y el tiempo que dure determina tres situaciones diferentes. Una inicial donde el individuo incrementa su peso. La segunda en la cual el individuo mantiene su peso constante, ya que la cantidad de TG almacenados es igual a la cantidad que se hidrolizan. Y la tercera, cuando la IR es permanente, se desencadena la Diabetes Mellitus tipo 2 (DM2) que cursa con pérdida de peso y marcadores metabólicos alterados. La IR del tejido adiposo incrementa los ácidos grasos libres circulantes y estos tienen tres destinos: en el tejido hepático se acumulan causando esteatosis; la célula beta pancreática sufre apoptosis y disminuye la síntesis y secreción de insulina; y el músculo esquelético desarrolla IR para protegerse de una acumulación anormal de glucógeno que conllevaría a degeneración y muerte de la célula muscular. En este artículo se explican las modificaciones moleculares que estos órganos utilizan para mantener su indemnidad.

The storage capacity of adiposetissueislimitedand determined genetically, so therearethin people with small storage capacity that have altered metabolic markers (hyperinsulinemia, hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, hepatic steatosis, etc.), and other people with large storage capacity that are able to increase weight until becoming morbidly obese and yet have normal metabolic markers. As adipose tissue approaches its maximum storage capacity, the adipocyte becomes less sensitive to insulin, to avoid death by apoptosis due to excessive accumulation of triglycerides (TG). The degree of insulin resistance (IR) in the adipose tissue and its duration determines three different situations. First of all, the patient increases weight. Second, the patient remains in a constant weight, since the amount of stored TG equals the amount that is hydrolyzed. And finally, when the IR is permanent, Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (DM2) develops, causing weight loss and altered metabolic markers. Adipose tissue IR increases circulating free fatty acids, which have three destinations: liver, where they accumulate causing steatosis; pancreatic beta cell, which undergoes apoptosis and decreases synthesis and secretion of insulin; and skeletal muscle which develops IR to protect itself against an abnormal accumulation of glycogen that would lead to degeneration and death of the muscle cell. This article explains the molecular modifications that these organs use to maintain their indemnity.

Consumo crónico de olmesartán como causa de enteropatía "sprue-like" / Chronic consumption of olmesartan as a cause of "sprue-like" enteropathy

La diarrea es un efecto secundario habitual a la toma de fármacos, y en algunas ocasiones la enteropatía perdedora de proteínas tipo "sprue like" puede estar detrás de esta patología. El estudio de esta enfermedad puede suponer un desafío importante para el clínico, sobre todo en los casos que cursan con serología negativa para enfermedad celiaca. La atrofia vellositaria duodenal secundaria a la ingesta de micofenolato-mofetil y metotrexate es bien conocida y descrita desde hace tiempo, pero desde la inclusión en la posológica habitual de olmesartán como antihipertensivo de primera elección hemos objetivado un repunte importante de esta entidad. Debido al amplio uso de esta medicación, queremos poner de manifiesto esta enteropatía iatrogénica a través de dos casos clínicos ocurridos en nuestro hospital en 2014.(AU()

Diarrhea is a common side effect of medical treatment. "Sprue like" enteropathy may be behind this pathology. The study of this disease can be an important clinical challenge, especially in those cases with negative serology for celiac disease. Duodenal villous atrophy secondary to the intake of mycophenolate mofetil and methotrexate have been well known and described but since the inclusion of olmesartán as a first-line antihypertensive, we have seen an important rebound of this entity. Due to the wide use of this medication we want to report this iatrogenic effect through two clinical cases that occurred in our hospital in 2014.(AU)

The Active and Periactive Zone Organization and the Functional Properties of Small and Large Synapses.

The arrival of an action potential (AP) at a synaptic terminal elicits highly synchronized quanta release. Repetitive APs produce successive synaptic vesicle (SV) fusions that require management of spent SV components in the presynaptic membrane with minimum disturbance of the secretory apparatus. To this end, the synaptic machinery is structured accordingly to the strength and the range of frequencies at which each particular synapse operates. This results in variations in the number and dimension of Active Zones (AZs), amount and distribution of SVs, and probably, in the primary endocytic mechanisms they use. Understanding better how these structural differences determine the functional response in each case has been a matter of long-term interest. Here we review the structural and functional properties of three distinct types of synapses: the neuromuscular junction (NMJ; a giant, highly reliable synapse that must exocytose a large number of quanta with each stimulus to guarantee excitation of the postsynaptic cell), the hippocampal excitatory small synapse (which most often has a single release site and a relatively small pool of vesicles), and the cerebellar mossy fiber-granule cell synapse (which possesses hundreds of release sites and is able to translocate, dock and prime vesicles at high speed). We will focus on how the release apparatus is organized in each case, the relative amount of vesicular membrane that needs to be accommodated within the periAZ upon stimulation, the different mechanisms for retrieving the excess of membrane and finally, how these factors may influence the functioning of the release sites.

Variations of lipoprotein(a) levels in the metabolic syndrome: a report from the Maracaibo City Metabolic Syndrome Prevalence Study.

BACKGROUND: Lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] is a known risk factor for cardiovascular disease, yet its influence on metabolic syndrome (MS) is still controversial. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact generated by this diagnosis in serum Lp(a) concentrations. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 1807 subjects of both genders (55.3% women and 44.7% men) belonging to the Maracaibo City Metabolic Syndrome Prevalence Study were evaluated. Results were expressed as Mean ± SD, determining differences through Student's t-test and One-Way ANOVA test. Multiple logistic regression models were utilized for analyzing factors associated with elevated serum Lp(a) levels and MS. Total cholesterol and LDL-C were corrected according to Lp(a)-Cholesterol when necessary. RESULTS: No differences were found in Lp(a) values between genders; P = 0,292. The association between MS and the classification of Lp(a) was statistically significant (χ (2) = 28.33; P < 0,0001), with greater levels in subjects with this diagnosis. In the univariate analysis, subjects with each of the separate diagnostic criteria showed higher serum Lp(a) concentrations, except for hyperglycemia. CONCLUSIONS: Lp(a) values exhibit important variations regarding MS and each of its components. Impaired fasting glucose appeared as a protecting factor against elevated Lp(a) concentrations, whereas its association with LDL-C and hs-CRP suggests a potential pro-inflammatory role.

Structural and functional maturation of active zones in large synapses.

Virtually all functions of the nervous system rely upon synapses, the sites of communication between neurons and between neurons and other cells. Synapses are complex structures, each one comprising hundreds of different types of molecules working in concert. They are organized by adhesive and scaffolding molecules that align presynaptic vesicular release sites, namely, active zones, with postsynaptic neurotransmitter receptors, thereby allowing rapid and reliable intercellular communication. Most synapses are relatively small, and acting alone exerts little effect on their postsynaptic partners. Some, however, are much larger and stronger, reliably driving the postsynaptic cell to its action potential threshold, acting essentially as electrical relays of excitation. These large synapses are among the best understood, and two of these are the subject of this review, namely, the vertebrate neuromuscular junction and the calyx of Held synapse in the mammalian auditory pathway of the brain stem. Both synapses undergo through a complex and well-coordinated maturation process, during which time the molecular elements and the biophysical properties of the secretory machinery are continuously adjusted to the synapse size and to the functional requirements. We here review the morphological and functional changes occurring during postnatal maturation, noting particular similarities and differences between these two large synapses.

Diabetes mellitus tipo 1 y factores ambientales: La gran emboscada

La Diabetes Mellitus Tipo 1 (DM1) es una de las patologías más estudiadas en la actualidad, no solo por el aumento de su incidencia, sino también por su aparición a edades cada vez más tempranas. La DM1 es una enfermedad autoinmune de una alta complejidad genética y donde la susceptibilidad a factores ambientales parece jugar un papel preponderante. Elementos como parto por cesárea, deficiencia de vitamina D, exposición temprana a proteínas de la leche de vaca, exposición limitada a microorganismos durante la infancia y el incremento en la incidencia de obesidad infantil han sido relacionados con el desarrollo de esta entidad, convergiendo todos estos factores en un punto clave: la pérdida de la tolerancia inmunológica intestinal y la participación de células T auto-reactivas en pacientes susceptibles. Por su parte, la leche materna ofrece una serie de factores de crecimiento, inmunológicos, e incluso insulina, que son capaces de inducir una respuesta tolerogénica en el microambiente intestinal con la subsecuente disminución de la autoinmunidad. En esta revisión se expondrá la evidencia y los mecanismos fisiopatológicos propuestos por medio de los cuales los elementos mencionados desencadenarían una alteración de la inmunomodulación intestinal y un incremento en la predisposición al desarrollo de DM1.

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM) is one of the most studied pathologies to date, not only due to the elevating incidence but also because it is being diagnosed at even earlier ages. T1DM is an autoimmune disease with a very complex genetic background where environmental factors seem to play a very important triggering role. Elements like cesarean section, vitamin D deficiency, early exposure to cow milk proteins, limited exposure to microorganisms during infancy, and the increase of childhood obesity have been related to the development of this disease, converging all the factors into one key feature: loss of intestinal immunological tolerance and the participation of auto-reactive T cells from a susceptible patient. On the other hand, breast milk offers a series of growth and immunological factors, even insulin, which are able to induce a tolerogenic response in the intestinal microenvironment, lowering the probability of any autoimmune phenomena. The following review will expose evidence of the pathophysiological mechanisms involved in each environmental element associated with intestinal immunomodulation and the increase risk of T1DM.

The functional landscape of a presynaptic nerve terminal.

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is the original model synapse, and while others have emerged, especially as models of plasticity involving coincidence detectors, the NMJ continues to provide useful new information. It remains, for example, one of the best understood synapses in terms of the relationship between structure and function. In particular, the advent of new tools for fluorescence imaging has allowed the processes of vesicle exocytosis, endocytosis, and receptor activation to be spatially mapped in considerable detail. Here, we will focus on the spatial properties of transmitter release at the presynaptic motor terminal at the mouse NMJ. The preparation offers several experimental advantages, such as easy accessibility, a nearly planar, unobstructed view of several hundred square microns of synaptic membrane, as well as a highly stereotyped, consistent structure of a fully differentiated adult mammalian synapse.

La otra cara de Janus y la enfermedad tiroidea autoinmune

La enfermedad tiroidea autoinmune es una de las patologías más comunes dentro de la endocrinología. Este grupo de enfermedades que afectan la función tiroidea se consideran actualmente como parte de un espectro, donde por un lado se evidencia una hipofunción y donde predomina una respuesta inmune Th1 (Tiroiditis de Hashimoto) y en el lado opuesto, el de la hiperfunción, predomina una respuesta Th2 (Enfermedad de Graves). Si bien ambas enfermedades tienen ciertos locus de predisposición genética en común, las manifestaciones clínicas y el pronóstico de estas enfermedades son totalmente opuestas. Aunque se han planteado diversas teorías para explicar las diferencias en el patrón autoinmune de ambos extremos de este espectro, éstas no han logrado ilustrar la amplia variedad de fenotipos de esta patología. Evidencia actual sugiere que un grupo celular encargado de controlar la actividad de los elementos efectores de la respuesta inmune, limitando el daño hacia los tejidos del hospedador mediando la autotolerancia, y conocido como células T reguladoras, juegan un papel protagónico en el desarrollo de las enfermedades autoinmunes. El propósito de ésta revisión es exponer como la disregulación de la cara reguladora del sistema inmune, expresada tanto en la alteración de la función como en la expansión de las células T reguladoras, constituyen una piedra angular en las diversas formas de manifestación de la enfermedad tiroidea autoinmune.

Autoimmune thyroid disease is one of the most common diseases inside the field of endocrinology. This group of diseases affect the thyroid function in a manner that is now considered like a spectrum, where on one side there is evidence of hypofunction and a predominating Th1 response (Hashimoto´s thyroiditis), and on the opposite side, hyperfunction and a predominating Th2 response (Graves´ disease). Even though both diseases share loci for genetic predisposition, the outcome of each of them is totally opposite. Several theories have been proposed to explain the differences in the autoimmune patterns, but haven’t been able to explain the ample phenotypical manifestations of the disease. Current evidence suggests that a recently describe cellular group is in charge of controlling the effector elements of the immune response, limiting tissue damage and enhancing self-tolerance, these are the T regulator cells (Treg), which play a principal role in the development of autoimmune diseases. The purpose of this review is to expose the dysregulation of the regulatory side of the immune system expressed as the alteration of the functioning of Treg, which are now believed to be fundamental in the many phenotypes of autoimmune thyroid diseases.

SMN requirement for synaptic vesicle, active zone and microtubule postnatal organization in motor nerve terminals.

Low levels of the Survival Motor Neuron (SMN) protein produce Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA), a severe monogenetic disease in infants characterized by muscle weakness and impaired synaptic transmission. We report here severe structural and functional alterations in the organization of the organelles and the cytoskeleton of motor nerve terminals in a mouse model of SMA. The decrease in SMN levels resulted in the clustering of synaptic vesicles (SVs) and Active Zones (AZs), reduction in the size of the readily releasable pool (RRP), and the recycling pool (RP) of synaptic vesicles, a decrease in active mitochondria and limiting of neurofilament and microtubule maturation. We propose that SMN is essential for the normal postnatal maturation of motor nerve terminals and that SMN deficiency disrupts the presynaptic organization leading to neurodegeneration.

Active zones and the readily releasable pool of synaptic vesicles at the neuromuscular junction of the mouse.

Synchronous neurotransmitter release is a highly regulated process that takes place at specializations at the presynaptic membrane called active zones (AZs). The relationships between AZs, quantal release, and vesicle replenishment are not well understood in a mature synapse. We have measured the number, distribution, and other properties of AZs in mouse motor nerve terminals and combined these observations with electrophysiological estimates of the size of the readily releasable pool (RRP) of synaptic vesicles. On average, we counted 850 AZs per terminal. Assuming two primary docked vesicles per AZ, we predict a total of ∼1700 vesicles optimally positioned for exocytosis. Electrophysiological estimates of the size of the RRP, using a simple kinetic model that assumes exponential depletion of the initial pool and refilling by recruitment, gave an average value of 1730 quanta during 100 Hz stimulation, in satisfying agreement with the morphology. At lower stimulus frequencies, however, the model revealed that the estimated RRP size is smaller, suggesting that not all AZs participate in release at low stimulation frequencies.

Lipoprotein(a): from molecules to therapeutics.

Lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a)] was discovered by Kare Berg in 1963 from the study of low-density lipoprotein genetic variants. Lp(a) contains a unique protein, apolipoprotein(a), which is linked to the Apo B-100 through a disulfide bond that gives it a great structural homology with plasminogen, and confers it atherogenic and atherothrombotic properties. Interest in Lp(a) has increased because an important association between high plasma levels of Lp(a) and coronary artery disease and cerebral vascular disorders has been demonstrated. Numerous case control studies have confirmed that hyper-Lp(a) is a risk factor for premature cardiovascular disease. Lp(a) is identified as a genetic trait with autosomal transmission, codified by one of the most studied polymorphic genes in humans. It has been demonstrated that variations in this gene are a major factor in the serum levels of Lp(a). Variations differ considerably between individuals and sex across populations. Various approaches to drug treatment using fibric acid derivatives, growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor-1, alcohol extracted soy protein, niacin, and exercise have been proven to decrease Lp(a) in high risk patients, but none has really been an effective therapeutic option for successfully reducing Lp(a) plasma levels.

Haemodynamical variables versus endothelial hormones in hypertensive and type 2 diabetic patients with endothelial dysfunction.

Leptin is a 167 aminoacid peptidic hormone secreted by adipose tissue. It works mainly in the hypothalamus at thirst signal, but given its closed connections with inflammatory and endothelial systems, also has been postulated that it may exert a regulatory control over blood pressure (BP), interacting with nitric oxide (NO) and C reactive protein (CRP). The cold pressor test (CPT) is a simple test that indirectly determines endothelial dysfunction. In this work, biochemical indicators (CRP, leptin, and NO) and hemodynamic indicators (systolic and diastolic BP) were performed and evaluated in hypertensive, type 2 diabetic, and control subjects during a single CPT for assessment of endothelial dysfunction. A total of 43 subjects, males and females aged 25 to 60 years and divided in three groups, 15 healthy volunteers, 13 hypertensive patients, and 15 patients with type 2 diabetes, were included in the study. A complete clinical history was obtained from each subject, and a complete physical examination, including an electrocardiogram was carried out. During the assay of 30 minutes, 0.9% saline was infused intravenously. CPT was performed to assess the cardiovascular reactivity at minute 15. The cardiovascular variables (systolic and diastolic BP) were measured in minute 0, 16, and 30. In addition, serum variables were obtained at the beginning and at the end of the experiment, and statistical analysis was performed. CPT caused in all subjects a significant increase of BP and pulse. There were no significant differences to CPR and leptin in any group, although we observed significant differences for NO (P < 0.05). Sensitivity and specificity for all biochemical variables resulted in nonsignificant statistical or clinical importance as markers of endothelial dysfunction; however, a positive association was found when leptin and NO were evaluated together (sensitivity: 0.2; specificity. 0.8). CRP, leptin, and NO did not shown any direct and significant association with the hemodynamic variables in this study, although a relationship was noted between NO according to group and biochemical variables when studied altogether.